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Ianiski LB, Maciel AF, Colla ACN, Braga CQ, Sangioni LA, Pal M, Pereira DIB, Santurio JM, Botton SDA. Pythium insidiosum: In vitro oomicidal evaluation of telithromycin and interactions with azithromycin and amorolfine hydrochloride. J Mycol Med 2024; 34:101460. [PMID: 38266397 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2024.101460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
This study evaluated the repositioning of the ketolide antibacterial telithromycin (TLT) against the oomycete Pythium insidiosum and verified the combination of TLT and the antimicrobials azithromycin (AZM) and amorolfine hydrochloride (AMR), which have known anti-P. insidiosum activity. Susceptibility tests of P. insidiosum isolates (n = 20) against the drugs were carried out according to CLSI protocol M38-A2, and their combinations were evaluated using the checkerboard microdilution method. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were 0.5-4 µg/mL for TLT, 2-32 µg/mL for AZM, and 16-64 µg/mL for AMR. For the TLT+AZM combination, 52.75 % of interactions were indifferent, 43.44 % were antagonistic, and 9.70 % were synergistic. As for interactions of the TLT+AMR combination, 60.43 % were indifferent, 39.12 % were antagonistic, and 10.44 % synergistic interactions. This study is the first to evaluate the repositioning of the antibacterial TLT against mammalian pathogenic oomycetes, and our results show that its isolated action is superior to its combinations with either AZM or AMR. Therefore, we recommend including TLT in future research to evaluate therapeutic approaches in different clinical forms of human and animal pythiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Baccarin Ianiski
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Laboratório de Saúde Única, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (PPGCF) e de Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima N° 1000, Prédio 44, sala 5132, CEP, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Aline Fontanella Maciel
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Laboratório de Saúde Única, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (PPGCF) e de Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima N° 1000, Prédio 44, sala 5132, CEP, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Nolasco Colla
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Laboratório de Saúde Única, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (PPGCF) e de Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima N° 1000, Prédio 44, sala 5132, CEP, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | | | - Luis Antônio Sangioni
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Laboratório de Saúde Única, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (PPGCF) e de Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima N° 1000, Prédio 44, sala 5132, CEP, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Mahendra Pal
- Narayan Consultancy on Veterinary Public Health and Microbiology, Bharuch, India
| | | | - Janio Morais Santurio
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Laboratório de Saúde Única, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (PPGCF) e de Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima N° 1000, Prédio 44, sala 5132, CEP, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Laboratório de Saúde Única, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (PPGCF) e de Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima N° 1000, Prédio 44, sala 5132, CEP, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.
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Hamlin AN, Locker S, Huguet E, Berry CR, Cole R, Iv JFG, Gremillion C, Hecht S, Vilaplana Grosso FR. Computed tomographic characteristics of confirmed and presumed noncutaneous pythiosis in 25 dogs. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2024; 65:87-98. [PMID: 38192159 DOI: 10.1111/vru.13326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum is an aquatic oomycete that causes granulomatous infection in dogs, most commonly cutaneous and gastrointestinal. Ultrasonographic characteristics of gastrointestinal pythiosis have been described; occasionally, CT is utilized in the clinical setting, and CT features of pythiosis have not been published. The purpose of this retrospective, multicenter, descriptive study is to describe CT characteristics of noncutaneous canine pythiosis. The following CT parameters were recorded: lesion anatomic location, number, shape, margination, size, attenuation pre- and postcontrast, enhancement pattern, lymph nodes affected, other lesions identified, and presence of peritoneal effusion or steatitis. Descriptive statistics demonstrating the frequency of lesion appearances were performed. Twenty-five dogs with noncutaneous pythiosis lesions that underwent CT were included; 19 had primarily gastrointestinal infections, four primarily arterial infections, one intrathoracic and intra-abdominal infection, and one primary pulmonary infection. In dogs with primary gastrointestinal infection, lesions were most common at the ileocolic junction and were most frequently focal, well-defined, moderate to marked circumferential wall thickening that was homogeneous and smoothly marginated precontrast, with moderate heterogeneous contrast enhancement. Most dogs had involvement of multiple gastrointestinal regions. Of four dogs with primary arterial involvement, three had large aneurysmal dilatations of the cranial mesenteric artery with severe mural thickening. All dogs had regional lymphadenopathy, which was variable but generally mild. Nine dogs had peritoneal effusion; six dogs had steatitis. CT features of pythiosis can overlap with neoplasia, but pythiosis should be considered as a differential, especially in young dogs. Findings supported using CT as an adjunct imaging test for increasing clinical suspicion of noncutaneous pythiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra N Hamlin
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Seth Locker
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Elodie Huguet
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Clifford R Berry
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Robert Cole
- Clinical Sciences, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn, Alabama, USA
| | - John F Griffin Iv
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Christine Gremillion
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Silke Hecht
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Federico R Vilaplana Grosso
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Braga CQ, Milech A, dos Santos Bermann C, Ianiski LB, Stibbe PC, de Lemos AB, Bonel J, de Avila Botton S, Pereira DIB. Exposure of Culex quinquefasciatus to the oomycete Pythium insidiosum: A protocol for in vitro studies. Fungal Biol 2023; 127:969-974. [PMID: 37024156 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2023.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum causes pythiosis, an infection that affects different species of mammals, including humans, and inhabits marshy ecosystems of tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions worldwide. Therefore, this study proposes a protocol to expose Culex quinquefasciatus to P. insidiosum zoospores. Cx. quinquefasciatus immatures (eggs, larvae, and pupae) were exposed to zoospores (8x103 zoospores/mL) of the oomycete for 24 h. The exposure of Cx. quinquefasciatus to the zoospores from L1 to the emergence of adults was evaluated, and P. insidiosum detection was performed by microbiological culture, polymerase chain reaction, and histopathological analysis of stage 4 larvae. The protocol used to produce Cx. quinquefasciatus colonies and adapted for this study proved viable for research on the interaction between P. insidiosum and this Culicidae species. Moreover, P. insidiosum presence was evident in all larval stages of the mosquito, although the presence of the oomycete was not detected in the eggs, pupae, and adults. This study is a pioneer in the development of a protocol to evaluate Cx. quinquefasciatus exposure to P. insidiosum zoospores, and under experimental conditions, P. insidiosum can establish itself in Cx. quinquefasciatus larval stages. The developed protocol is expected to serve as a basis for developing studies to evaluate the interactions of P. insidiosum with these mosquitoes and shed more light on the participation of culicids in expanding the ecological niche of P. insidiosum.
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Sukanan P, Suparp B, Yongsiri S, Chansiripornchai P, Kesdangsakonwut S. Successful management of colonic pythiosis in two dogs in Thailand using antifungal therapy. Vet Med Sci 2022; 8:2283-2291. [PMID: 36173734 PMCID: PMC9677377 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal pythiosis is a severe, progressive and often a fatal disease, which is caused by the aquatic pathogen Pythium insidiosum. Treatment is challenging due to the disease's resistance to antifungal drugs. Surgical resection is frequently attempted in cases of pythiosis; however, it can be technically challenging. This report presents two dogs with decreased appetite, abdominal pain, progressive haematochezia, tenesmus and significant weight loss. With the medical histories of both being young canines, living in areas with access to natural water resources and with the main chronic gastrointestinal symptoms having not responded to symptomatic treatment, pythiosis was taken into consideration. Abdominal ultrasound revealed severe, diffuse thickening and loss of normal layering of the colonic wall. These findings led to a differential diagnosis between intestinal neoplasia and fungal disease. Full-thickness biopsies were later performed, and immunohistochemistry staining was suggested for colonic pythiosis. Medical treatment for pythiosis was successful with a combination of oral terbinafine and prednisolone. However, therapy with itraconazole in case 1 did not improve the clinical signs, and in case 2, itraconazole was used after all clinical signs have improved for clinical control. Since then, there has been no recurrence of clinical signs until the time of preparing this report (19 months for case 1, 11 months for case 2 since the cessation of treatment). The treatment was successful based on clinical signs and ultrasonographic data, and the disease remission was not confirmed by advance imaging, monitoring of pythiosis enzyme-linked immunosorbent essay concentration or repeat sampling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Piyarat Chansiripornchai
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary ScienceChulalongkorn UniversityBangkokThailand
| | - Sawang Kesdangsakonwut
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary ScienceChulalongkorn UniversityBangkokThailand
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Ubiali DG, Pereira AHB, Boabaid FM, Dutra V, Nakazato L, Campos CG, Colodel EM, Pescador CA, Riet-Correa F. Successful potassium iodide treatment for rhinofacial pythiosis in sheep. J Mycol Med 2021; 32:101233. [PMID: 34902797 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2021.101233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pythiosis in sheep is an important disease in Brazil, which could cause rhinitis, dermatitis and alimentary tract inflammation. It is caused by the aquatic oomycete, Pythium insidiosum. The rhinofacial pythiosis causes facial deformity and upper respiratory tract clinical signs associated with necroproliferative masses occupying the rostral nasal cavity and hard palate. Little is known regarding the therapy, prophylaxis and pathogenesis of this disease. METHODOLOGY During the 6-year study, we examined 13 sheep presenting rhinofacial pythiosis. The diagnosis was performed through biopsy of the rhinofacial lesions followed by histopathology and immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies against P insidiosum, polymerase chain reaction and an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS This study presents the clinical findings of a potassium iodide treatment of rhinofacial pythiosis in sheep. All sheep were treated with 10 ml of 10% potassium iodide solution, administered orally every day during 63-120 (mean 85) days. Among treated sheep, 84.6% demonstrated complete recovery. CONCLUSION Potassium iodide therapy may treat rhinofacial pythiosis in sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Ubiali
- Pathological Anatomy Sector (SAP), Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRuralRJ), BR-465 Km 7, Seropédica, RJ 23.890-001, Brazil.
| | - Asheley H B Pereira
- Pathological Anatomy Sector (SAP), Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRuralRJ), BR-465 Km 7, Seropédica, RJ 23.890-001, Brazil
| | - Fabiana M Boabaid
- Centro Universitario de Tacuarembó, Universidad de la República, Ruta 5 Km 386, Tacuarembó, TA 45000, Uruguay
| | - Valéria Dutra
- Microbiology Laboratory, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Av. Fernando Corrêa 2367, Coxipó, Cuiabá, MT 78060-900, Brazil
| | - Luciano Nakazato
- Microbiology Laboratory, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Av. Fernando Corrêa 2367, Coxipó, Cuiabá, MT 78060-900, Brazil
| | - Camila G Campos
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Av. Fernando Corrêa 2367, Coxipó, Cuiabá, MT 78060-900, Brazil
| | - Edson M Colodel
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Av. Fernando Corrêa 2367, Coxipó, Cuiabá, MT 78060-900, Brazil
| | - Caroline A Pescador
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Av. Fernando Corrêa 2367, Coxipó, Cuiabá, MT 78060-900, Brazil
| | - Franklin Riet-Correa
- Post-Graduate Program in Animal Science in the Tropics, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, BA, Brazil
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History and Perspective of Immunotherapy for Pythiosis. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9101080. [PMID: 34696188 PMCID: PMC8539095 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9101080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungus-like microorganism Pythium insidiosum causes pythiosis, a life-threatening infectious disease increasingly reported worldwide. Antimicrobial drugs are ineffective. Radical surgery is an essential treatment. Pythiosis can resume post-surgically. Immunotherapy using P. insidiosum antigens (PIA) has emerged as an alternative treatment. This review aims at providing up-to-date information of the immunotherapeutic PIA, with the focus on its history, preparation, clinical application, outcome, mechanism, and recent advances, in order to promote the proper use and future development of this treatment modality. P. insidiosum crude extract is the primary source of immunotherapeutic antigens. Based on 967 documented human and animal (mainly horses) pythiosis cases, PIA immunotherapy reduced disease morbidity and mortality. Concerning clinical outcomes, 19.4% of PIA-immunized human patients succumbed to vascular pythiosis instead of 41.0% in unimmunized cases. PIA immunotherapy may not provide an advantage in a local P. insidiosum infection of the eye. Both PIA-immunized and unimmunized horses with pythiosis showed a similar survival rate of ~70%; however, demands for surgical intervention were much lesser in the immunized cases (22.8% vs. 75.2%). The proposed PIA action involves switching the non-protective T-helper-2 to protective T-helper-1 mediated immunity. By exploring the available P. insidiosum genome data, synthetic peptides, recombinant proteins, and nucleic acids are potential sources of the immunotherapeutic antigens worth investigating. The PIA therapeutic property needs improvement for a better prognosis of pythiosis patients.
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Ianiski LB, Stibbe PC, Denardi LB, Weiblen C, Soares MP, Valente JDSS, Sangioni LA, Pereira DIB, Santurio JM, Botton SDA. In vitro anti-Pythium insidiosum activity of amorolfine hydrochloride and azithromycin, alone and in combination. Med Mycol 2021; 59:67-73. [PMID: 32400872 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myaa032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum infections have been widely studied in an attempt to develop an effective therapeutic protocol for the treatment of human and animal pythiosis. Several antifungal agents are still prescribed against this oomycete, although they present contradictory results. To evaluate the susceptibility profile and to verify the morphological alterations in P. insidiosum isolates treated with amorolfine hydrochloride and azithromycin, alone or in combination. Susceptibility tests for P. insidiosum isolates (n = 20) against amorolfine hydrochloride (AMR) and azithromycin (AZM) were performed according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institutes (CLSI) protocol M38-A2. Combinations of both drugs were evaluated using the checkerboard microdilution method. Additionally, transmission and scanning electron microscopy were performed in order to verify the morphological alterations in P. insidiosum isolates in response to these drugs. All P. insidiosum isolates had a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 16 to 64 mg/l and 8 to 64 mg/l for amorolfine hydrochloride and azithromycin, respectively. Synergistic interactions between the drugs were not observed, with antagonism in 59.8% of isolates, and indifferent interactions in 36.2%. Electron microscopy showed changes in the surface of P. insidiosum hyphae, disorganization of intracellular organelles, and changes in the plasma membrane and cell wall of oomycetes treated with the drugs. This is the first study to demonstrate in vitro anti-P. insidiosum effect of amorolfine hydrochloride. These results indicate the therapeutic potential of this drug against cutaneous and subcutaneous forms of pythiosis, but further studies are necessary to confirm this potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Baccarin Ianiski
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,UFSM, CCS, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Paula Cristina Stibbe
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,UFSM, CCS, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Laura Bedin Denardi
- UFSM, CCS, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Carla Weiblen
- UFSM, CCS, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,UFSM, Centro de Ciências Rurais, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Mauro Pereira Soares
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Faculdade de Veterinária, Laboratório Regional de Diagnóstico. Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Julia de Souza Silveira Valente
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia. Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Luís Antônio Sangioni
- UFSM, Centro de Ciências Rurais, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniela Isabel Brayer Pereira
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia. Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.,UFSM, Centro de Ciências Rurais, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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Weiblen C, Zanette RA, Ribeiro TC, Pereira Dos Santos CE, Ianiski LB, Pereira DIB, Santurio JM, Botton SDA. Intradermal injection of Pythium insidiosum protein antigens for improved diagnosis and treatment of pythiosis in an experimental model. Med Mycol 2019; 57:807-812. [PMID: 30260397 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myy078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The oomycetous pathogen Pythium insidiosum is the causative agent of pythiosis, a life-threatening disease that affects animals and humans. This infectious disease is difficult to treat, and early and accurate diagnosis is critical for effective treatment. In this sense, this study aimed to evaluate the intradermal (ID) injection of P. insidiosum protein antigens (PiPA) for the diagnosis and treatment of pythiosis using an experimental model. For diagnostic purposes, PiPA were injected by the ID route in the following groups of rabbits: (a) control; (b) previously immunized with PiPA injected by the subcutaneous (SC) route; and (c) infected with P. insidiosum zoospores. For treatment purposes, rabbits with pythiosis were also treated with PiPA by the ID or SC routes. Mean induration sizes were different at 24 h and 72 h readings when compared to the control group. Sensitivity of the protocol was 100% at 24 h and 80% at 72 h, with 100% specificity in both readings. PiPA treatment using ID or SC routes did not result in significant differences in lesion sizes and cure rates; however, serum levels of interferon-gamma were higher in SC route. This study demonstrates the applicability of PiPA ID for diagnosis and treatment of pythiosis in an experimental model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Weiblen
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM). aDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP)/ Programa de Pós Graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV)/ Centro de Ciências Rurais (CCR). bDepartamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia (Demip)/Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS)
| | - Régis Adriel Zanette
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Farmacologia e Terapêutica
| | - Tatiana Corrêa Ribeiro
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM). aDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP)/ Programa de Pós Graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV)/ Centro de Ciências Rurais (CCR). bDepartamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia (Demip)/Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS)
| | | | - Lara Baccarin Ianiski
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM). aDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP)/ Programa de Pós Graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV)/ Centro de Ciências Rurais (CCR). bDepartamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia (Demip)/Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS)
| | | | - Janio Morais Santurio
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM). aDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP)/ Programa de Pós Graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV)/ Centro de Ciências Rurais (CCR). bDepartamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia (Demip)/Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS)
| | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM). aDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP)/ Programa de Pós Graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV)/ Centro de Ciências Rurais (CCR). bDepartamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia (Demip)/Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS)
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Dal Ben V, Oliveira RS, Borchardt JL, Valente JDSS, Brasil CL, Zambrano CG, Leite FPL, Botton SDA, Pereira DIB. Protein profile of Brazilian Pythium insidiosum isolates. Med Mycol 2019; 56:485-492. [PMID: 29420782 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum is an important aquatic Oomycota that causes pythiosis in mammals, especially horses, dogs, and humans; these inhabit marshy environments in tropical and subtropical areas. The aim of this study was to determine the protein profile, as well as identify likely immunodominant proteins, of Brazilian P. insidiosum isolates from southern Brazil, an important equine pythiosis endemic area. P. insidiosum isolates (horses, n = 20 and dogs, n = 02) were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot techniques. Horse, cattle, dog, and rabbit sera of both diseased and healthy animals were used to identify P. insidiosum proteins. SDS-PAGE protein profile detected antigens of molecular weights ranging from 100 to 20 KDa. Dog isolates revealed a protein profile similar to that of horse isolates. Anti-P. insidiosum antibodies in the sera of the four species could recognize proteins of different molecular weights (∼74 KDa to ∼24 KDa), and proteins ∼50-55 KDa and ∼34 KDa were shown to be immunodominant. Furthermore, ∼74 KDa, ∼60 KDa, ∼30 KDa and ∼24 KDa proteins were poorly recognized by host species antibodies. The Brazilian P. insidiosum isolates analyzed showed a similar protein profile; however, further studies are essential for the identification and characterization of proteins expressed by P. insidiosum, and an evaluation of the immunological profile of hosts susceptible to this Oomycota is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Dal Ben
- Laboratório de Micologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
| | - Rômulo S Oliveira
- Laboratório da Modulação da Resposta Imune, Programa de Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto/SP, Brazil
| | - Jéssica L Borchardt
- Laboratório de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
| | - Júlia de Souza S Valente
- Laboratório de Micologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
| | - Carolina Lichtina Brasil
- Laboratório de Micologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
| | - Cristina Gomes Zambrano
- Laboratório de Micologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
| | - Fábio Pereira Leivas Leite
- Laboratório de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
| | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria/RS, Brazil
| | - Daniela Isabel Brayer Pereira
- Laboratório de Micologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas/RS, Brazil
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Zambrano CG, Gomes AR, Brasil CL, Valente JDSS, Braga CQ, de Azevedo MI, Botton SDA, Pereira DIB. Influence of temperature on in vitro zoosporogenesis of Pythium insidiosum. Med Mycol 2018; 56:877-883. [PMID: 29228375 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study verified the influence of different temperatures on P. insidiosum in vitro zoosporogenesis. P. insidiosum isolates (n = 26) were submitted to zoosporogenesis and incubated at 5°C, 15°C, 20°C and 37°C (1st stage). Grass fragments were evaluated under optical microscopy at 4, 8, and 24 hours of incubation. Afterward, all isolates were incubated at 37°C and assessed at the same periods of time (2nd stage). The development of hyphae, presence of vesicles, zoosporangia and zoospores were checked. Only the presence of short hyphae was observed at 5°C. At 15°C, the hyphae were either under development or elongated and two isolates produced zoospores. When the isolates were submitted to 20°C for 4 hours, the presence of long and mycelial hyphae, vesicles, zoosporangia and zoospores was observed, which also happened at the other periods evaluated. In the second stage, the isolates which were initially at 5°C and 15°C evidenced long developing hyphae with the presence of vesicles, zoosporangia, and zoospores within 4 hours of incubation, and these characteristics were kept at the other evaluated periods. The isolates kept at 37°C showed evident zoosporogenesis in the first 4 hours of evaluation. It was concluded that temperatures of 20°C and 37°C support P. insidiosum zoosporogenesis process. On the other hand, 5°C and 15°C temperatures do not kill the microorganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Gomes Zambrano
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS/ Brazil
| | - Angelita Reis Gomes
- Laboratório de Micologia, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS/ Brazil
| | - Carolina Litchina Brasil
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS/ Brazil
| | - Júlia de Souza Silveira Valente
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS/ Brazil
| | - Carolina Quintana Braga
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS/ Brazil
| | - Maria Isabel de Azevedo
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS/ Brazil
| | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS/Brazil
| | - Daniela Isabel Brayer Pereira
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS/ Brazil
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11
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Arsuaga-Zorrilla CB, Grooters AM, Pucheu-Haston CM. Quantitation of anti-Pythium insidiosum antibodies before and after administration of an immunotherapeutic product to healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res 2018; 79:1160-1165. [PMID: 30372150 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.79.11.1160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of an immunotherapeutic product on concentrations of anti-Pythium insidiosum antibodies in dogs. ANIMALS 7 healthy hound-crossbreds. PROCEDURES Antibody concentrations were evaluated before (day 0) and after administration of the immunotherapeutic product. The immunotherapeutic product was administered on days 0, 7, and 21. Serum was obtained on days 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, and 56. Anti-P insidiosum antibody concentrations were measured and reported as the percentage positivity relative to results for a strongly positive control serum. RESULTS Mean ± SD percentage positivity before administration of the immunotherapeutic product was 7.45 ± 3.02%. There was no significant change in anti-P insidiosum antibody concentrations after administration of the product, with percentage positivity values in all dogs remaining within the range expected for healthy dogs (3% to 15%). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Administration of the immunotherapeutic product to healthy dogs in accordance with the manufacturer's suggested protocol did not induce a significant change in anti-P insidiosum antibody concentrations. These results suggested that administration of the immunotherapeutic product may not interfere with postadministration serologic monitoring. However, further investigations will be required to determine whether there is a similar effect in naturally infected dogs.
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12
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Ribeiro TC, Weiblen C, Botton SDA, Pereira DIB, de Jesus FPK, Verdi CM, Gressler LT, Sangioni LA, Santurio JM. In vitro susceptibility of the oomycete Pythium insidiosum to metallic compounds containing cadmium, lead, copper, manganese or zinc. Med Mycol 2018; 55:669-672. [PMID: 27816906 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myw115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum is an aquatic oomycete that causes pythiosis, an important and severe disease of difficult treatment that affects humans, domestic and wild animals. This infection is often described in horses in Brazil and humans in Thailand. In clinical practice, we have observed many cases that do not respond to available therapies, indicating the need to explore alternative therapeutic approaches. In this sense, studies using metal compounds in conjunction with available antimicrobial agents have been demonstrated greater antimicrobial activity. Thus, in this research, we tested in vitro activities of metallic compounds containing cadmium, lead, copper, manganese, or zinc against 23 isolates of P. insidiosum. The assays were performed by broth microdilution based on CLSI M38-A2 document. The minimum inhibitory and fungicidal concentrations were established for all isolates. Copper acetate and cadmium acetate showed the highest inhibitory effects, with minimal inhibitory concentration ranging from 4-64 μg/ml and 16-256 μg/ml, respectively. The mean geometric for minimal fungicidal concentrations were, respectively, 26 μg/ml and 111.43 μg/ml for copper acetate and cadmium acetate. These results suggest that copper and cadmium can inhibit P. insidiosum growth, highlighting the greater inhibitory activity of copper acetate. In addition, our results propose that copper and/or cadmium compounds can be used in upcoming researches to formulate effective new complexed drugs against P. insidiosum in in vitro and in vivo experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Corrêa Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Campus Universitário, Prédio 20, 4139, 97105900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Carla Weiblen
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP), Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP), Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniela Isabel Brayer Pereira
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Francielli Pantella Kunz de Jesus
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Campus Universitário, Prédio 20, 4139, 97105900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Camila Marina Verdi
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Campus Universitário, Prédio 20, 4139, 97105900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Leticia Trevisan Gressler
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP), Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Luís Antonio Sangioni
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva (DMVP), Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária (PPGMV), Centro de Ciências Rurais, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Janio Morais Santurio
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Micológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Campus Universitário, Prédio 20, 4139, 97105900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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13
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Ledur PC, Tondolo JSM, Jesus FPK, Verdi CM, Loreto ÉS, Alves SH, Santurio JM. Dendritic cells pulsed with Pythium insidiosum (1,3)(1,6)-β-glucan, Heat-inactivated zoospores and immunotherapy prime naïve T cells to Th1 differentiation in vitro. Immunobiology 2017; 223:294-299. [PMID: 29074300 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2017.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pythiosis is a life-threatening disease caused by the fungus-like microorganism Pythium insidiosum that can lead to death if not treated. Since P. insidiosum has particular cell wall characteristics, pythiosis is difficult to treat, as it does not respond well to traditional antifungal drugs. In our study, we investigated a new immunotherapeutic approach with potential use in treatment and in the acquisition of immunity against pythiosis. Dendritic cells from both human and mouse, pulsed with P. insidiosum heat-inactivated zoospore, (1,3)(1,6)-β-glucan and the immunotherapeutic PitiumVac® efficiently induced naïve T cell differentiation in a Th1 phenotype by the activation of specific Th1 cytokine production in vitro. Heat-inactivated zoospores showed the greatest Th1 response among the tested groups, with a significant increase in IL-6 and IFN-γ production in human cells. In mice cells, we also observed a Th17 pathway induction, with an increase on the IL-17A levels in lymphocytes cultured with β-glucan pulsed DCs. These results suggest a potential use of DCs pulsed with P. insidiosum antigens as a new therapeutic strategy in the treatment and acquisition of immunity against pythiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline C Ledur
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Juliana S M Tondolo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Francielli P K Jesus
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Camila M Verdi
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Érico S Loreto
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Sydney H Alves
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química Orgânica, Laboratório de Processos Tecnológicos e Catálise, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, RS, Brazil
| | - Janio M Santurio
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil.
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14
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Inêz-Ferreira TM, Mendoza L, Vilela R, Andrade HMD, Haddad JP, Nunes FFC, Gondim IM, Guimarães TMPD, de Toledo VDPCP. A Leishmania murine model to evaluate the immunomodulatory properties of Pythium insidiosum proteins. Heliyon 2017; 3:e00278. [PMID: 28393124 PMCID: PMC5377577 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum immunomodulatory vaccine (PiV) has been tested in clinical and experimental pythiosis. Previous data showed that P. insidiosum immunogens have the ability to switch the Th2 immune response, normally in place during pythiosis, to a curative Th1 response. Pythiosis cannot be reproduced in experimental rodents with the exception of rabbits, and thus thorough evaluation of PiV´s immunomodulatory properties has been limited by the lack of a compatible inbred mouse model. In this study, we took advantage of the murine BALB/c Leishmania infection model, where infected mice produce a Th2 response, to evaluate the PiV Th2 to Th1 immunomodulatory potential. Twenty-one days following challenge with L. major, large cutaneous granulomas developed in control mice, consistent with the expected Th2 response. In contrast, Leishmania-induced cutaneous lesions in PiV-immunized mice were minimal or absent. Flow cytometry analysis of spleen cells from mice immunized with PiV and subsequently challenged with L. major displayed more CD4+ and CD8+ cells than the control group. Moreover, spleen cells from mice that were immunized with PiV then challenged with L. major secreted high levels of IFN-γ, with a moderate IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10 mixed cytokine profile upon in vitro re-stimulation with PiV. Anti-P. insidiosum IgG1 in immunized animals was present at low titers suggesting a minor immunological role for this Ig isotype in this model. Our preliminary data showed that BALB/c mice challenged with L. major represent an attractive model in which to study PiV´s immunomodulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leonel Mendoza
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan USA
- Biomedical Laboratory Diagnostics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan USA
| | - Raquel Vilela
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Biomedical Laboratory Diagnostics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan USA
| | - Hélida Monteiro de Andrade
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária da UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - João Paulo Haddad
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária da UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Isabela Moreira Gondim
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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15
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de Souza Silveira Valente J, de Oliveira da Silva Fonseca A, Denardi LB, Dal Ben VS, de Souza Maia Filho F, Baptista CT, Braga CQ, Zambrano CG, Alves SH, de Avila Botton S, Pereira DIB. In Vitro Susceptibility of Pythium insidiosum to Melaleuca alternifolia, Mentha piperita and Origanum vulgare Essential Oils Combinations. Mycopathologia 2016; 181:617-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-016-0019-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Fonseca AO, Pereira DI, Botton SA, Pötter L, Sallis ES, Júnior SF, Filho FS, Zambrano CG, Maroneze BP, Valente JS, Baptista CT, Braga CQ, Ben VD, Meireles MC. Treatment of experimental pythiosis with essential oils of Origanum vulgare and Mentha piperita singly, in association and in combination with immunotherapy. Vet Microbiol 2015; 178:265-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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17
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Loreto &ES, Tondolo JSM, Zanette RA, Alves SH, Santurio JM. Update on pythiosis immunobiology and immunotherapy. World J Immunol 2014; 4:88-97. [DOI: 10.5411/wji.v4.i2.88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Pythiosis is an invasive, ulcerative, pyogranulomatous disease caused by Pythium insidiosum, a fungus-like oomycete that has been reported to affect humans, horses, dogs, and other mammals mainly in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The disease is characterized by an eosinophilic granulomatous and a Th2 immune response which in turn helps to protect the fungus from the host cells. Pythiosis can present clinically in subcutaneous, gastrointestinal, and vascular tissues or in a systemically disseminated form depending on the species and site of infection. Changes in iron metabolism and anemia are commonly observed. The diagnosis is accomplished through clinical and pathological features, laboratory characteristics of cultures, serological and molecular tests. Treatment includes radical surgery, antimicrobial drugs, immunotherapy or a combination of these treatments. Immunotherapy is a practical and non-invasive alternative for treating pythiosis which is believed to promote a switch from a Th2 to Th1 immune response, resulting in a favorable clinical response. This therapy has demonstrated cure rates above 70% and 55% in horses and humans but low cure rates in dogs and cats. Despite the curative properties of this type of immunotherapy, the antibodies that are produced do not prevent host reinfection. Thus, development of effective adjuvants and new diagnostic techniques for early disease diagnosis are of utmost importance. The aim of this review was to promote pythiosis awareness and to provide an update about the immunotherapy and immunobiology of this disease.
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