Quantifying In Vivo Luminal Drug Solubilization -Supersaturation-Precipitation Profiles to Explain the Performance of Lipid Based Formulations

Impact of Composition of Lipid-Based Formulations on First-Pass Drug Metabolism after Oral Administration

This study aimed to elucidate the drug absorption mechanisms after oral administration of lipid-based formulations (LBFs), emphasizing the impact of their composition on first-pass drug metabolism. Ketoconazole (KTZ), a CYP3A substrate, was loaded into two types of LBFs: a long-chain LBF (type II-LC) and a lipid-free formulation (type IV). Following oral administration of type II-LC, the systemic exposure of KTZ was lower compared to that for the type IV and a control suspension. However, pretreatment with 1-aminobenzotriazole, a nonspecific CYP inhibitor, revealed equivalent in vivo exposure among the formulations tested. The absorption of KTZ from type II-LC in the early period was slower than that from the suspension and type IV. Experiments on in vitro digestion in sequence with in vitro permeation across a dialysis membrane showed that the drug permeation rate for type II-LC was extremely low. This was probably due to the reduction in free drug molecules in the donor compartment via the incorporation of KTZ into mixed micelles comprising digestion products derived from type II-LC and bile components. Furthermore, luminal concentration measurements revealed that gastric emptying was delayed when a type II-LC was administered. The reduced free drug concentration and transient delay in gastric emptying of KTZ resulted in the slower absorption of KTZ for type II-LC. The product of the fraction of drug absorbed and fraction of the drug not metabolized in the gut wall (Fa × Fg) calculated from the systemic and portal plasma concentration-time courses of KTZ was 0.185 for type II-LC and 0.327 for suspension. Since the luminal concentration measurement demonstrated complete absorption of KTZ from the gastrointestinal tract (Fa ≅ 1), the Fa × Fg values can be regarded as Fg. In conclusion, the lower in vivo exposure following oral administration of type II-LC was attributed to reduced Fg, that is, slower drug absorption from the jejunum resulted in low KTZ concentration in enterocytes, leading to enhanced metabolic efficiency. Our findings can be valuable when selecting excipients for designing LBFs with the preferred in vivo performance for highly metabolized drugs.

In Vitro Digestion-In Situ Absorption Setup Employing a Physiologically Relevant Value of the Membrane Surface Area/Volume Ratio for Evaluating Performance of Lipid-Based Formulations: A Comparative Study with an In Vitro Digestion-Permeation Model

The aim of this study is to establish and test an in vitro digestion-in situ absorption model that can mimic in vivo drug flux by employing a physiologically relevant value of the membrane surface area (S)/volume (V) ratio for accurate prediction of oral drug absorption from lipid-based formulations (LBFs). Three different types of LBFs (Type IIIA-MC, Type IIIA-LC, and Type IV) loaded with cinnarizine (CNZ), a lipophilic weak base with borderline permeability, and a control suspension were prepared. Subsequently, a simultaneous in vitro digestion-permeation experiment was conducted using a side-by-side diffusion cell with a dialysis membrane having a low S/V value. During digestion, CNZ partially precipitated for Type IV, while it remained solubilized in the aqueous phase for Type IIIA-MC and Type IIIA-LC in the donor compartment. However, in vitro drug fluxes for Type IIIA-MC and Type IIIA-LC were lower than those for Type IV due to the reduced free fraction of CNZ in the donor compartment. In pharmacokinetic studies, a similar improvement in in vivo oral exposure relative to suspension was observed, regardless of the LBFs used. Consequently, a poor correlation was found between in vitro permeation and areas under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUCoral) (R2 = 0.087). A luminal concentration measurement study revealed that this discrepancy was attributed to the extremely high absorption rate of CNZ in the gastrointestinal tract compared to that across a dialysis membrane evaluated by the in vitro digestion-permeation model, i.e., the absorption of CNZ in vivo was completed regardless of the extent of the free fraction, owing to the rapid removal of CNZ from the intestine. Subsequently, we aimed to predict the oral absorption of CNZ from the same formulations using a model that demonstrated high drug flux by employing the physiologically relevant S/V value and rat jejunum segment as an absorption sink (for replicating in vivo intestinal permeability). Predigested formulations were injected into the rat intestinal loop, and AUCloop values were calculated from the plasma concentration-time profiles. A better correlation was found between AUCloop and AUCoral (R2 = 0.72), although AUCloop underestimated AUCoral for Type IV due to the precipitation of CNZ during the predigestion process. However, this result indicated the importance of mimicking the in vivo drug absorption rate in the predictive model. The method presented herein is valuable for the development of LBFs.

Utilization of Lipophilic Salt and Phospholipid Complex in Lipid-Based Formulations to Modulate Drug Loading and Oral Bioavailability of Pazopanib

Pazopanib hydrochloride (PAZ) displays strong intermolecular interaction in its crystal lattice structure, limiting its solubility and dissolution. The development of lipid-based formulations (LbFs) resulted in reduced PAZ loading due to solid-state mediated low liposolubility. This study aims to enhance our understanding of PAZ crystallinity by synthesizing a lipophilic salt and phospholipid complex and investigating its impact on the drug loading in LbFs. The synthesized pazopanib lipophilic salt and phospholipid complex were extensively characterized. The solid form of pazopanib docusate (PAZ-DOC) and pazopanib phospholipid complex (PAZ-PLC) indicates a reduction in characteristic diffraction peaks of crystalline PAZ. The lipid formulations were prepared using synthesized PAZ-DOC and PAZ-PLC, where PAZ-DOC demonstrated six fold higher drug solubility than the commercial salt form and twice that of the PAZ-PLC due to differences in the crystallinity. Further, the impact of salt and complex formation was assessed on the aqueous drug solubilization using lipolysis and multimedia dissolution experiments. Moreover, the LbFs showed notably faster dissolution compared to the crystalline PAZ and marketed tablet. In terms of in vivo pharmacokinetics, the PAZ-DOC LbF exhibited a remarkable 11-fold increase in AUC value compared to the crystalline PAZ and a 2.5-fold increase compared to Votrient®. Similarly, PAZ-PLC LbF showed an approximately nine fold increase in drug exposure compared to the crystalline PAZ, and a 2.2-fold increase compared to Votrient®. These findings suggest that disrupting the crystallinity of drugs and incorporating them into LbF could be advantageous for enhancing drug loading and overcoming limitations related to drug absorption.

Supersaturating lipid-based solid dispersion of atazanavir provides enhanced solubilization and supersaturation in the digestive aqueous phase

Understanding and controlling the drug solubilization in digestive environment is of great importance in the design of lipid based solid dispersion (LBSD) for oral delivery of poorly aqueous soluble drugs. In the current study we determined the extent of drug solubilization and supersaturation of supersaturating lipid based solid dispersion which is governed by formulation variables like drug payload, lipid composition, solid carrier properties and lipid to solid carrier ratio. Initially, the impact of lipid chain length and drug payload on drug solubilization in lipid preconcentrate and dispersibility were evaluated to design liquid LbF of the model antiretroviral drug, atazanavir. The temperature induced supersaturation method enhanced the drug payload in medium chain triglyceride formulation at 60 °C. Further, the selected liquid supersaturated LbF was transformed into solid state LbF by employing different solid carriers including silica (Neusilin® US2 and Aerosil® 200), clay (Montmorillonite and Bentonite) and polymer (HPMC-AS and Kollidon® CL-M). The fabricated LBSDs were evaluated for solid state characterization to identify the physical nature of drug. In vitro digestion studies were conducted using pH-stat lipolysis method to assess the supersaturation propensity in aqueous digestive phase. Results revealed that LBSDs with silica and polymer carriers showed maximum drug solubilization throughout experiment compared to liquid LbF. The ionic interaction between drug-clay particles significantly reduced the ATZ partitioning from clay based LBSDs. LBSDs with dual purpose solid carrier like HPMC-AS and Neusilin® US2 offers the potential to improve drug solubilization of ATZ for physiologically relevant time. Lastly, we conclude that evaluation of formulation variables is crucial to achieve optimal performance of supersaturating LBSD.

[Elucidation and Prediction of Absorption Behavior After Oral Administration of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs as Different Lipid-Based Formulations]

Lipid-based formulations (LBFs) are isotropic mixtures typically comprising lipids, surfactants, and/or co-solvents, in which drugs are pre-solubilized. After oral administration, LBFs are piggybacked into endogenous lipid digestion pathways. This triggers drug super-saturation and improves absorption. However, super-saturation poses a risk of drug precipitation, which generally leads to poor drug absorption. Furthermore, a series of aqueous colloidal species including digestion products (typically fatty acids and monoglycerides) and endogenous molecules (bile acids and phospholipids) increase the drug solubilization capacity of the intestinal fluid (compared with that of the normal intestinal fluid). However, the solubilization/precipitation behavior may change according to the LBF composition (e.g., the drug loading amount and type of formulation excipients), which may ultimately lead to differences in oral absorption. This review summarizes the results of the evaluation and prediction of the effect of LBFs composition on oral absorption and provides an in-depth understanding of the drug absorption mechanisms when using LBFs.

The impact of quantity of lipid based formulations with different compositions on the oral absorption of ritonavir: A trade-off between apparent solubility and permeability

In this study, the effect of the quantity of lipid-based formulations (LBFs) on the oral absorption of ritonavir (RTV), a model for poorly water-soluble drugs, was investigated. Two types of LBFs, comprising short- and medium-chain lipids (LBF-SMC) and long-chain lipids (LBF-LC) loaded with different masses of RTV, were prepared. Then, the respective LBFs were dispersed in distilled water at concentrations of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0% w/w, which provided the same drug concentration for all formulations. When 1.0% LBF-SMC and LBF-LC were orally administered to rats, the oral absorption was significantly improved compared with that of the suspension (a reference formulation) because of enhanced solubilization of RTV in the gastrointestinal tract; however, this improvement was lower for LBF-LC than for LBF-SMC. The oral absorption decreased with increasing LBF concentration for both LBF-SMC and LBF-LC. The in vitro permeation in sequence with in vitro digestion revealed that this phenomenon was caused by a reduction in the free drug concentration in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, the effect of decreasing the free concentration was more remarkable for LBF-LC than for LBF-SMC because of the greater solubilization capacity of LC digestion products. These findings may be useful for designing improved drug delivery systems.

Variable-Temperature NMR Analysis of the Thermodynamics of Polymer Partitioning between Aqueous and Drug-Rich Phases and Its Significance for Amorphous Formulations

We previously reported that the polymers used in amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) formulations, such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate (PVP-VA), and hypromellose (HPMC), distribute into the drug-rich phase of ibuprofen (IBP) formed by liquid-liquid phase separation, resulting in a reduction in the maximum drug supersaturation in the aqueous phase. Herein, the mechanism underlying the partitioning of the polymer into the drug-rich phase was investigated from a thermodynamic perspective. The dissolved IBP concentration in the aqueous phase and the amount of polymer distributed into the IBP-rich phase were quantitatively analyzed in IBP-supersaturated solutions containing different polymers using variable-temperature solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The polymer weight ratio in the IBP-rich phase increased at higher temperatures, leading to a more notable reduction of IBP amorphous solubility. Among the polymers, the amorphous solubility reduction was the greatest for the PVP-VA solution at lower temperatures, while HPMC reduced the amorphous solubility to the greatest extent at higher temperatures. The change in the order of polymer impact on the amorphous solubility resulted from the differences in the temperature dependency of polymer partitioning. The van't Hoff plot of the polymer partition coefficient revealed that both enthalpy and entropy changes for polymer transfer into the IBP-rich phase from the aqueous phase (ΔH_{aqueous→IBP-rich} and ΔS_{aqueous→IBP-rich}) gave positive values for most of the measured temperature range, indicating that polymer partitioning into the IBP-rich phase was an endothermic but entropically favorable process. The polymer transfer into the IBP-rich phase was more endothermic for HPMC than for PVP and PVP-VA. The solid-state NMR analysis of the IBP/polymer ASD implied that the newly formed IBP/polymer interactions in the IBP-rich phase upon polymer incorporation were weaker for HPMC, providing a rationale for the larger positive transfer enthalpy for HPMC. The change in Gibbs free energy for polymer transfer (ΔG_{aqueous→IBP-rich}) showed negative values across the experimental temperature range, decreasing with an increase in temperature, indicating that the distribution of the polymer into the IBP-rich phase is favored at higher temperatures. Moreover, ΔG_{aqueous→IBP-rich} for HPMC showed the greatest decrease with the temperature, likely reflecting the temperature-induced dehydration of HPMC in the aqueous phase. This study contributes fundamental insights into the phenomenon of polymer partitioning into drug-rich phases, furthering the understanding of achievable supersaturation levels and ultimately providing information on polymer selection for ASD formulations.

Supersaturation and Solubilization upon In Vitro Digestion of Fenofibrate Type I Lipid Formulations: Effect of Droplet Size, Surfactant Concentration and Lipid Type

Lipid-based formulations (LBF) enhance oral drug absorption by promoting drug solubilization and supersaturation. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the lipid carrier type, drop size and surfactant concentration on the rate of fenofibrate release in a bicarbonate-based in vitro digestion model. The effect of the lipid carrier was studied by preparing type I LBF with drop size ≈ 2 µm, based on medium-chain triglycerides (MCT), sunflower oil (SFO), coconut oil (CNO) and cocoa butter (CB). The drop size and surfactant concentration effects were assessed by studying MCT and SFO-based formulations with a drop size between 400 nm and 14 µm and surfactant concentrations of 1 or 10%. A filtration through a 200 nm filter followed by HPLC analysis was used to determine the aqueous fenofibrate, whereas lipid digestion was followed by gas chromatography. Shorter-chain triglycerides were key in promoting a faster drug release. The fenofibrate release from long-chain triglyceride formulations (SFO, CNO and CB) was governed by solubilization and was enhanced at a smaller droplet size and higher surfactant concentration. In contrast, supersaturation was observed after the digestion of MCT emulsions. In this case, a smaller drop size and higher surfactant had negative effects: lower peak fenofibrate concentrations and a faster onset of precipitation were observed. The study provides new mechanistic insights on drug solubilization and supersaturation after LBF digestion, and may support the development of new in silico prediction models.

Biorelevant dissolution testing and physiologically based absorption modeling to predict in vivo performance of supersaturating drug delivery systems

Supersaturating drug delivery systems (SDDS) enhance the oral absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs by achieving a supersaturated state in the gastrointestinal tract. The maintenance of a supersaturated state is decided by the complex interplay among inherent properties of drug, excipients and physiological conditions of gastrointestinal tract. The biopharmaceutical advantage through SDDS can be mechanistically investigated by coupling biopredictive dissolution testing with physiologically based absorption modeling (PBAM). However, the development of biopredictive dissolution methods possess challenges due to concurrent dissolution, supersaturation, precipitation, and possible redissolution of precipitates during gastrointestinal transit of SDDS. In this comprehensive review, our effort is to critically assess the current state-of-knowledge and provide future directions for PBAM of SDDS. The review outlines various methods used to retrieve physiologically relevant values for input parameters like solubility, dissolution, precipitation, lipid-digestion and permeability of SDDS. SDDS-specific parameterization includes solubility values corresponding to apparent physical form, dissolution in physiologically relevant volumes with biorelevant media, and transfer experiments to incorporate precipitation kinetics. Interestingly, the lack of experimental permeability values and modification of absorption flux through SDDS possess the additional challenge for its PBAM. Supersaturation triggered permeability modifications are reported to fit the observed plasma concentration-time profile. Hence, the experimental insights on good fitting with modified permeability can be potential area of future research for the development of in vitro methods to reliably predict oral absorption of SDDS.

Digestion of Lipid-Based Formulations Not Only Mediates Changes to Absorption of Poorly Soluble Drugs Due to Differences in Solubilization But Also Reflects Changes to Thermodynamic Activity and Permeability

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of lipid digestion on the permeability and absorption of orally administered saquinavir (SQV), a biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) class IV drug, in different lipid-based formulations. Three LBFs were prepared: a mixed short- and medium-chain lipid-based formulation (SMCF), a medium-chain lipid-based formulation (MCF), and a long-chain lipid-based formulation (LCF). SQV was loaded into these LBFs at 26.7 mg/g. To evaluate the pharmacokinetics of SQV in vivo, drug-loaded formulations were predispersed in purified water at 3% w/w and orally administered to rats. A low dose (0.8 mg/rat) was employed to limit confounding effects on drug solubilization, and consistent with this design, presolubilization of SQV in the LBFs did not increase in vivo exposure compared to a control suspension formulation. The areas under the plasma concentration-time curve were, however, significantly lower after administration of SQV as MCF and LCF compared to SMCF. To evaluate the key mechanisms underpinning absorption, each LBF containing SQV was digested, and the flux of SQV from the digests across a dialysis membrane was evaluated in in vitro permeation experiments. This study revealed that the absorption profiles were driven by the free concentration of SQV and that this varied due to differences in SQV solubilization in the digestion products generated by LBF digestion. The apparent first-order permeation rate constants of SQV (k_app,total) were estimated by dividing the flux of SQV in the dialysis membrane experiments by the concentration of total SQV on the donor side. k_app,total values strongly correlated with in vivo AUC. The data provide one of the first studies of the effect of digestion products on the free concentration of a drug in the GI fluid and oral absorption. This simple permeation model may be a useful tool for the evaluation of the impact of lipid digestion on apparent drug permeability from lipid-based formulations. These effects should be assessed alongside, and in addition to, the more well-known effects of lipids on enhancing intestinal solubilization of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Effects of Lipid Digestion and Drug Permeation/Re-Dissolution on Absorption of Orally Administered Ritonavir as Different Lipid-Based Formulations

The aim of this study is to clarify absorption mechanisms after oral administration of ritonavir (RTV) from different types of lipid-based formulations (LBFs) with particular emphasis on the effect of lipid digestion and drug permeation/re-dissolution on the oral absorption. Four LBFs were prepared; three contained either long-chain (LC) or medium-chain (MC) lipids [lipid formulation classification system (LFCS) Type II-LC, Type IIIA-MC, and Type IIIB-MC] and the fourth contained only surfactant and co-solvent (Type IV). The solubility of RTV in those LBFs was determined and drug subsequently loaded at 85% w/w of the saturated solubility in the formulations. Then, each LBF containing drug was added into a model rat intestinal fluid at approximately 2.5% w/v for evaluation using an in vitro digestion model. In vitro digestion study showed the ability of Type II-LC and Type IIIA-MC to support continued solubilization of RTV, and moderate supersaturation was observed in Type IIIA-MC. In contrast, RTV partly precipitated in the Type IIIB-MC during digestion, and the Type IV formulation lost its solubilization capacity rapidly upon dispersion, leading to drastic precipitation. Oral administration of RTV as Type IIIA-MC to rats showed significantly higher area under the plasma concentration-time curve compared to control suspension, whereas it was not improved with Type II-LC administration despite complete solubilization of RTV during digestion. From the results of in vitro permeation across dialysis membrane (a molecular weight cutoff of > 1000 Da), this may be attributed to the lowered free concentration in the gastrointestinal tract owing to incorporation of RTV into the undigested LC lipid. Oral absorption drastically increased with Type IIIB-MC and Type IV despite the observed moderate and drastic precipitation, respectively. Powder X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that the precipitate was amorphous. Therefore, improved re-solubilization may partly contribute to improved absorption. The present study revealed detailed absorption mechanisms from LBFs with different compositions. Our findings may be useful for selecting appropriate excipients to design optimal LBFs for poorly water-soluble drugs.

Porous Nanostructure, Lipid Composition, and Degree of Drug Supersaturation Modulate In Vitro Fenofibrate Solubilization in Silica-Lipid Hybrids

The unique nanostructured matrix obtained by silica-lipid hybrids (SLHs) is well known to improve the dissolution, absorption, and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs (PWSDs). The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of: (i) drug load: 3–22.7% w/w, (ii) lipid type: medium-chain triglyceride (Captex 300) and mono and diester of caprylic acid (Capmul PG8), and (iii) silica nanostructure: spray dried fumed silica (FS) and mesoporous silica (MPS), on the in vitro dissolution, solubilization, and solid-state stability of the model drug fenofibrate (FEN). Greater FEN crystallinity was detected at higher drug loads and within the MPS formulations. Furthermore, an increased rate and extent of dissolution was achieved by FS formulations when compared to crystalline FEN (5–10-fold), a commercial product; APO-fenofibrate (2.4–4-fold) and corresponding MPS formulations (2–4-fold). Precipitation of FEN during in vitro lipolysis restricted data interpretation, however a synergistic effect between MPS and Captex 300 in enhancing FEN aqueous solubilization was attained. It was concluded that a balance between in vitro performance and drug loading is key, and the optimum drug load was determined to be between 7–16% w/w, which corresponds to (200–400% equilibrium solubility in lipid S_eq). This study provides valuable insight into the impact of key characteristics of SLHs, in constructing optimized solid-state lipid-based formulations for the oral delivery of PWSDs.