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Hao Y, Luo Y, Lin-Hong KHY, Yan M. Shared translation in second language activates unrelated words in first language. Psychon Bull Rev 2023:10.3758/s13423-023-02405-z. [PMID: 37932581 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02405-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
The present study explored bilingual coactivation during natural monolingual sentence-reading comprehension. Native Chinese readers who had learned Japanese as a second language and those who had not learned it at all were tested. The results showed that unrelated Chinese word pairs that shared a common Japanese translation could parafoveally prime each other. Critically, this translation-related preview effect was modulated by the readers' language-learning experiences. It was found only among the late Chinese-Japanese bilinguals, but not among the monolingual Chinese readers. By setting a novel step, which was testing bilingual coactivation of semantic knowledge in a natural reading scenario without an explicit presentation of L2 words, our results suggest that bilingual word processing can be automatic, unconscious and nonselective. The study reveals an L2-to-L1 influence on readers' lexical activation during natural sentence reading in an exclusively native context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Hao
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Macau, China
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Yingyi Luo
- Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Kenneth Han-Yang Lin-Hong
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Macau, China
- Institute of Linguistics, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Macau, China.
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.
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2
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Yang J, Zhang T, Xue Y. Skipping the structural particle de () in reading Chinese: The role of word frequency and sentential fit. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023; 76:528-537. [PMID: 35360985 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221094315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies suggested that readers were more likely to skip a word when it was previewed by a very-high-frequency word, like "the" in English and "de ()" in Chinese, and they suggested that readers based skipping decisions on parafoveal word information rather than on sentence context. However, in these studies, the very-high-frequency preview word (the or de) was always implausible given the sentence context. It is an open question whether parafoveal word information interacts with sentence context to influence skipping decisions. Therefore, the current experiment orthogonally manipulated the preview information of the target character (identical or de preview) and the plausibility of de (plausible or implausible) to examine this question. The major results indicated that readers were more likely to skip the target character and made longer outgoing saccade length across the boundary in the de preview condition than in the identical preview condition. What is more important, the interaction between the plausibility of de and preview condition was significant: Readers' higher probability of skipping the target character and longer outgoing saccade length in the de preview condition than in the identical preview condition was only significant when de was plausible, suggesting that parafoveal word information and context information can act as a joint constraint on skipping decision in reading Chinese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinmian Yang
- Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianyu Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yangxin Xue
- Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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3
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Luo C, Zhu M, Zhuang X, Ma G. Food word processing in Chinese reading: A study of restrained eaters. Br J Psychol 2023; 114:476-494. [PMID: 36762466 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Food-related attentional bias refers that individuals typically prioritize rewarding food-related cues (e.g. food words and food images) compared with non-food stimuli; however, the findings are inconsistent for restrained eaters. Traditional paradigms used to test food-related attentional bias, such as visual probe tasks and visual search tasks, may not directly and accurately enough to reflect individuals' food-word processing at different cognitive stages. In this study, we introduced the boundary paradigm to investigate food-word attentional bias for both restrained and unrestrained eaters. Eye movements were recorded when they performed a naturalistic sentence-reading task. The results of later-stage analyses showed that food words were fixated on for less time than non-food words, which indicated a superiority of foveal food-word processing for both restrained and unrestrained eaters. The results of early-stage analyses showed that restrained eaters spent more time on pre-target regions in the food-word valid preview conditions, which indicated a parafoveal food-word processing superiority for restrained eaters (i.e. the parafoveal-on-foveal effect). The superiority of foveal food-word processing provides new insights into explaining food-related attentional bias in general groups. Additionally, the enhanced food-word attentional bias in parafoveal processing for restrained eaters illustrates the importance of individual characteristics in studying word recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlin Luo
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Mengyan Zhu
- School of Psychological Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Xiangling Zhuang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Guojie Ma
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
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4
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Zhang L, Liu Z, Zhao S, Wang J. Semantic plausibility preferentially affects the semantic preview benefit in Chinese reading: evidence from an eye-movement study. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15291. [PMID: 37159829 PMCID: PMC10163867 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Numerous studies have confirmed that skilled readers can benefit from a semantically related preview word (i.e., semantic preview benefit, SPB), suggesting that readers can extract semantic information from the parafovea to achieve efficient reading. It is still under debate whether the occurrence of this benefit is because of the semantic association between the preview and target words or because of the contextual fit of the preview word in the sentence context. Methods Two independent factors, preview plausibility (preview plausible/implausible) and semantic relatedness (semantically related/unrelated), were manipulated, and we further strictly controlled for syntactic plausibility in the present study. Results The results showed that the first-pass reading times of the target words were significantly shorter in the plausible preview condition than in the implausible preview condition. However, the main effect of semantic relatedness was found only in the gaze duration measure. Discussion The pattern of results revealed that semantic plausibility affects the semantic preview benefit preferentially in Chinese reading, supporting the contextual fit account. Our findings have implications for a better understanding of parafoveal processing and provide empirical support for the eye-movement control model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Zhang
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- School of Education and Psychology, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong, Sichuan, China
| | - Sainan Zhao
- School of Education, Linyi University, Linyi, Shandong, China
| | - Jingxin Wang
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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5
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Shen M, Niu Z, Gao L, Li T, Wang D, Li S, Zeng M, Bai X, Gao X. Examining the extraction of parafoveal semantic information in Tibetan. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281608. [PMID: 37011048 PMCID: PMC10069765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study conducted two experiments to investigate the extraction of semantic preview information from the parafovea in Tibetan reading. In Experiment 1, a single-factor (preview type: identical vs. semantically related vs. unrelated) within-subject experimental design was used to investigate whether there is a parafoveal semantic preview effect (SPE) in Tibetan reading. Experiment 2 used a 2 (contextual constraint: high vs. low) × 3 (preview type: identical vs. semantically related vs. unrelated) within-subject experimental design to investigate the influence of contextual constraint on the parafoveal semantic preview effect in Tibetan reading. Supporting the E-Z reader model, the experimental results showed that in Tibetan reading, readers could not obtain semantic preview information from the parafovea, and contextual constraint did not influence this process. However, comparing high- and low-constrained contexts, the latter might be more conducive to extracting semantic preview information from the parafovea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Shen
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Zibei Niu
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Lei Gao
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Tianzhi Li
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Danhui Wang
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Shan Li
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Man Zeng
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
| | - Xuejun Bai
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaolei Gao
- Plateau Brain Science Research Center, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
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6
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Xu L, Liu S, Wang S, Sun D, Li N. Word's Predictability Can Modulate Semantic Preview Effect in High-Constraint Sentences. Front Psychol 2022; 13:849351. [PMID: 35401306 PMCID: PMC8984147 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.849351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The processing of words in sentence reading is influenced by both information from sentential context (the effect of predictability) and information from previewing upcoming words (the preview effect), but how both effects interact during online reading is not clear. In this study, we tested the interaction of predictability effect and the preview effect in predicting reading processing. In the experiment, sentence constraint was controlled using all high-constraint sentences as materials. We manipulated both the predictability of the target word in the sentence and the semantic relationship between the preview word and the target word as predictors of the semantic preview effect. The results showed that the semantic preview effect was present only when the target word had low-predictability in the sentence but was not observed when the target word had high-predictability in the sentence. The results suggest that contextual information in reading can modulate the pre-activation of words and thus influence whether the preview word has a priming effect. The results of this study provide further evidence that reading comprehension involves an interactive system of processing multiple sources of information at multiple levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liling Xu
- School of Foreign Studies, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Philosophy and Social Science Laboratory of Reading and Development in Children and Adolescents (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
- Center for Language Cognition and Assessment, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sui Liu
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Suiping Wang
- Philosophy and Social Science Laboratory of Reading and Development in Children and Adolescents (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongxia Sun
- Guangdong Country Garden Polytechnic, Qingyuan, China
| | - Nan Li
- School of Foreign Studies, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Philosophy and Social Science Laboratory of Reading and Development in Children and Adolescents (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
- Center for Language Cognition and Assessment, Guangzhou, China
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7
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Pan J, Yan M, Yeh SL. Accessing Semantic Information from Above: Parafoveal Processing during the Reading of Vertically Presented Sentences in Traditional Chinese. Cogn Sci 2022; 46:e13104. [PMID: 35122308 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
As traditional Chinese readers are familiar with reading texts both horizontally rightwards and vertically downwards, the traditional Chinese script provides us a chance to investigate the influence of reading direction on preview benefits by ruling out the confounding factor of different familiarities with reading directions. The present study examines whether parafoveal information can be obtained when reading Chinese sentences in the vertical direction. We manipulated semantic and phonological relatedness between parafoveal preview words and target words. Results showed that traditional Chinese readers could obtain semantic information from preview words; however, there was no phonological preview benefit. Our findings agree with the notion that Chinese characters are well-optimized for semantic access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinger Pan
- Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong Kong
| | - Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau.,Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau
| | - Su-Ling Yeh
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University.,Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, National Taiwan University.,Neurobiology and Cognitive Science Center, National Taiwan University.,Center for Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Robotics, National Taiwan University
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8
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Hermena EW, Juma EJ, AlJassmi M. Parafoveal processing of orthographic, morphological, and semantic information during reading Arabic: A boundary paradigm investigation. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254745. [PMID: 34339439 PMCID: PMC8328344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence shows that skilled readers extract information about upcoming words in the parafovea. Using the boundary paradigm, we investigated native Arabic readers' processing of orthographic, morphological, and semantic information available parafoveally. Target words were embedded in frame sentences, and prior to readers fixating them, one of the following previews were made available: (a) Identity preview; (b) Preview that shared the pattern morpheme with the target; (c) Preview that shared the root morpheme with the target; (d) Preview that was a synonym with the target word; (e) Preview with two of the root letters were transposed thus creating a new root, while preserving all letter identities of the target; (f) Preview with two of the root letters were transposed thus creating a pronounceable pseudo root, while also preserving all letter identities of the target; and (g) Previews that was unrelated to the target word and shared no information with it. The results showed that identity, root-preserving, and synonymous preview conditions yielded preview benefit. On the other hand, no benefit was obtained from the pattern-preserving previews, and significant disruption to processing was obtained from the previews that contained transposed root letters, particularly when this letter transposition created a new real root. The results thus reflect Arabic readers' dependance on morphological and semantic information, and suggest that these levels of representation are accessed as early as orthographic information. Implications for theory- and model-building, and the need to accommodate early morphological and semantic processing activities in more comprehensive models are further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehab W. Hermena
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Neuroscience Research Laboratory, College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Dubai, UAE
- * E-mail:
| | - Eida J. Juma
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Neuroscience Research Laboratory, College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Dubai, UAE
| | - Maryam AlJassmi
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Neuroscience Research Laboratory, College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Dubai, UAE
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9
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Cross-linguistic differences in parafoveal semantic and orthographic processing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:3183-3200. [PMID: 34312796 PMCID: PMC8550508 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02329-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study we investigated parafoveal processing by L1 and late L2 speakers of English (L1 German) while reading in English. We hypothesized that L2ers would make use of semantic and orthographic information parafoveally. Using the gaze contingent boundary paradigm, we manipulated six parafoveal masks in a sentence (Mark found th*e wood for the fire; * indicates the invisible boundary): identical word mask (wood), English orthographic mask (wook), English string mask (zwwl), German mask (holz), German orthographic mask (holn), and German string mask (kxfs). We found an orthographic benefit for L1ers and L2ers when the mask was orthographically related to the target word (wood vs. wook) in line with previous L1 research. English L2ers did not derive a benefit (rather an interference) when a non-cognate translation mask from their L1 was used (wood vs. holz), but did derive a benefit from a German orthographic mask (wood vs. holn). While unexpected, it may be that L2ers incur a switching cost when the complete German word is presented parafoveally, and derive a benefit by keeping both lexicons active when a partial German word is presented parafoveally (narrowing down lexical candidates). To the authors’ knowledge there is no mention of parafoveal processing in any model of L2 processing/reading, and the current study provides the first evidence for a parafoveal non-cognate orthographic benefit (but only with partial orthographic overlap) in sentence reading for L2ers. We discuss how these findings fit into the framework of bilingual word recognition theories.
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10
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Huber-Huber C, Buonocore A, Melcher D. The extrafoveal preview paradigm as a measure of predictive, active sampling in visual perception. J Vis 2021; 21:12. [PMID: 34283203 PMCID: PMC8300052 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.7.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
A key feature of visual processing in humans is the use of saccadic eye movements to look around the environment. Saccades are typically used to bring relevant information, which is glimpsed with extrafoveal vision, into the high-resolution fovea for further processing. With the exception of some unusual circumstances, such as the first fixation when walking into a room, our saccades are mainly guided based on this extrafoveal preview. In contrast, the majority of experimental studies in vision science have investigated "passive" behavioral and neural responses to suddenly appearing and often temporally or spatially unpredictable stimuli. As reviewed here, a growing number of studies have investigated visual processing of objects under more natural viewing conditions in which observers move their eyes to a stationary stimulus, visible previously in extrafoveal vision, during each trial. These studies demonstrate that the extrafoveal preview has a profound influence on visual processing of objects, both for behavior and neural activity. Starting from the preview effect in reading research we follow subsequent developments in vision research more generally and finally argue that taking such evidence seriously leads to a reconceptualization of the nature of human visual perception that incorporates the strong influence of prediction and action on sensory processing. We review theoretical perspectives on visual perception under naturalistic viewing conditions, including theories of active vision, active sensing, and sampling. Although the extrafoveal preview paradigm has already provided useful information about the timing of, and potential mechanisms for, the close interaction of the oculomotor and visual systems while reading and in natural scenes, the findings thus far also raise many new questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Huber-Huber
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, The Netherlands
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Italy
| | - Antimo Buonocore
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, Tübingen University, Tübingen, BW, Germany
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Tübingen University, Tübingen, BW, Germany
| | - David Melcher
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Italy
- Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, UAE
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11
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Are emojis processed like words?: Eye movements reveal the time course of semantic processing for emojified text. Psychon Bull Rev 2021; 28:978-991. [PMID: 33511541 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-020-01864-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Emojis have many functions that support reading. Most obviously, they convey semantic information and support reading comprehension (Lo, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11[5], 595-597, 2008; Riordan, Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 75-86, 2017b). However, it is undetermined whether emojis recruit the same perceptual and cognitive processes for identification and integration during reading as do words. To investigate whether emojis are processed like words, we used eye tracking to examine the time course of semantic processing of emojis during reading. Materials consisted of sentences containing a target word (e.g., coffee in the sentence "My tall coffee is just the right temperature") when there was no emoji present and when there was a semantically congruent (i.e., synonymous) emoji (e.g., the cup of coffee emoji, ) or an incongruent emoji (e.g., the beer mug emoji, ) present at the end of the sentence. Similar to congruency effects with words, congruent emojis were fixated for shorter periods and were less likely to be refixated than were incongruent emojis. In addition, congruent emojis were more frequently skipped than incongruent emojis, which suggests that semantic aspects of emoji processing begin in the parafovea. Finally, the presence of an emoji, relative to its absence increased target-word skipping rates and reduced total time on target words. We discuss the implications of our findings for models of eye-movement control during reading.
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12
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Rusich D, Arduino LS, Mauti M, Martelli M, Primativo S. Evidence of Semantic Processing in Parafoveal Reading: A Rapid Parallel Visual Presentation (Rpvp) Study. Brain Sci 2020; 11:E28. [PMID: 33383778 PMCID: PMC7823665 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study explores whether semantic processing in parafoveal reading in the Italian language is modulated by the perceptual and lexical features of stimuli by analyzing the results of the rapid parallel visual presentation (RPVP) paradigm experiment, which simultaneously presented two words, with one in the fovea and one in the parafovea. The words were randomly sampled from a set of semantically related and semantically unrelated pairs. The accuracy and reaction times in reading the words were measured as a function of the stimulus length and written word frequency. Fewer errors were observed in reading parafoveal words when they were semantically related to the foveal ones, and a larger semantic facilitatory effect was observed when the foveal word was highly frequent and the parafoveal word was short. Analysis of the reaction times suggests that the semantic relation between the two words sped up the naming of the foveal word when both words were short and highly frequent. Altogether, these results add further evidence in favor of the semantic processing of words in the parafovea during reading, modulated by the orthographic and lexical features of the stimuli. The results are discussed within the context of the most prominent models of word processing and eye movement controls in reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danila Rusich
- Department of Human Sciences, LUMSA University, P.zza delle Vaschette 101, 00193 Rome, Italy; (L.S.A.); (S.P.)
| | - Lisa S. Arduino
- Department of Human Sciences, LUMSA University, P.zza delle Vaschette 101, 00193 Rome, Italy; (L.S.A.); (S.P.)
| | - Marika Mauti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, Via dei Marsi, 78, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Marialuisa Martelli
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, Via dei Marsi, 78, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Silvia Primativo
- Department of Human Sciences, LUMSA University, P.zza delle Vaschette 101, 00193 Rome, Italy; (L.S.A.); (S.P.)
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13
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The word frequency effect of fovea and its effect on the preview effect of parafovea in Tibetan reading. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA SINICA 2020. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1041.2020.01143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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14
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The effect of contextual plausibility on word skipping during reading. Cognition 2020; 197:104184. [PMID: 31954289 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent eye-movement evidence suggests readers are more likely to skip a high-frequency word than a low-frequency word independently of the semantic or syntactic acceptability of the word in the sentence. This has been interpreted as strong support for a serial processing mechanism in which the decision to skip a word is based on the completion of a preliminary stage of lexical processing prior to any assessment of contextual fit. The present large-scale study was designed to reconcile these findings with the plausibility preview effect: higher skipping and reduced first-pass reading times for words that are previewed by contextually plausible, compared to implausible, sentence continuations that are unrelated to the target word. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences containing a short (3-4 letters) or long (6 letters) target word. The boundary paradigm was used to present parafoveal previews which were either higher or lower frequency than the target, and either plausible or implausible in the sentence context. The results revealed strong, independent effects of all three factors on target skipping and early measures of target fixation duration, while frequency and plausibility interacted on later measures of target fixation duration. Simulations using the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control in reading demonstrated that plausibility effects on skipping are potentially consistent with the assumption that higher-level contextual information only affects post-lexical integration processes. However, no current model of eye movements in reading provides an explicit account of the information or processes that allow readers to rapidly detect an integration failure.
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15
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Yan M, Wang A, Song H, Kliegl R. Parafoveal processing of phonology and semantics during the reading of Korean sentences. Cognition 2019; 193:104009. [PMID: 31295626 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The present study sets out to address two fundamental questions in the reading of continuous texts: Whether semantic and phonological information from upcoming words can be accessed during natural reading. In the present study we investigated parafoveal processing during the reading of Korean sentences, manipulating semantic and phonological information from parafoveal preview words. In addition to the first evidence for a semantic preview effect in Korean, we found that Korean readers have stronger and more long-lasting phonological than semantic activation from parafoveal words in second-pass reading. The present study provides an example that human mind can flexibly adjust processing priority to different types of information based on the linguistic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau.
| | - Aiping Wang
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hosu Song
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Reinhold Kliegl
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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Payne BR, Stites MC, Federmeier KD. Event-related brain potentials reveal how multiple aspects of semantic processing unfold across parafoveal and foveal vision during sentence reading. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13432. [PMID: 31274200 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent event-related brain potential (ERP) experiments have demonstrated parafoveal N400 expectancy and congruity effects, showing that semantic information can be accessed from words in parafoveal vision (a conclusion also supported by some eye-tracking work). At the same time, it is unclear how higher-order integrative aspects of language comprehension unfold across the visual field during reading. In the current study, we recorded ERPs in a parafoveal flanker paradigm, while readers were instructed to read passively for comprehension or to judge the plausibility of sentences in which target words varied in their semantic expectancy and congruity. We directly replicated prior work showing graded N400 effects for parafoveal viewing, which are then not duplicated when the target words are processed foveally. Critically, although N400 effects were not modulated by task goals, a posteriorly distributed late positive component thought to reflect semantic integration processes was observed to semantic incongruities only in the plausibility judgment task. However, this effect was observed at a considerable delay, appearing only after words had moved into foveal vision. Our findings thus suggest that semantic access can be initiated in parafoveal vision, whereas central foveal vision may be necessary to enact higher-order (and task-dependent) integrative processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan R Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Center on Aging, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | | | - Kara D Federmeier
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
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17
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Parafoveal processing of inflectional morphology in Russian: A within-word boundary-change paradigm. Vision Res 2019; 158:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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18
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Zhang W, Zhen A, Liang B, Mo L. The parallel mechanism of semantic context influences and parafoveal word identification. Neurosci Lett 2019; 704:73-77. [PMID: 30936035 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 01/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous event-related potential (ERP) studies have shown that the N400 effect tracks with the isolation point of a word in spoken language comprehension. These results suggested the semantic context of a sentence influences word processing before word identification. However, this delayed effect of N400 latency is not often the case in written language comprehension. The present study combined ERP with a rapid serial visual presentation with flanker (RSVP-flanker) method to examine this issue when words were presented in the parafovea. We manipulated three kinds of critical words: expected (EXP), semantically violated (VIO) and semantically cohort violated (COH-VIO). The ERP results showed that the parafoveal N400 effect was delayed in the contrast of COH-VIO vs. EXP than the contrast of VIO vs. EXP. These results suggested that the semantic context influences parafoveal word processing before word identification in written language comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjia Zhang
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
| | - Anna Zhen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Bo Liang
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Luxi Mo
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
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19
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Parafoveal preview effects from word N + 1 and word N + 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2018; 24:666-689. [PMID: 27576520 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-016-1147-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The use of gaze-contingent display techniques to study reading has shown that readers attend not only the currently fixated word, but also the word to the right of the current fixation. However, a critical look at the literature shows that a number of questions cannot be readily answered from the available literature reviews on the topic. First, there is no consensus as to whether readers also attend the second word to the right of fixation. Second, it is not clear whether parafoveal processing is more efficient in languages such as Chinese. Third, it is not well understood whether the measured effects are confounded by the properties of the parafoveal mask. In the present study, we addressed these issues by performing a Bayesian meta-analysis of 93 experiments that used the boundary paradigm (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-81. doi: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5 , 1975). We describe three main findings: (1) The advantage of previewing the second word to the right is modest in size and likely is not centered on zero; (2) Chinese readers do seem to make more efficient use of parafoveal processing, but this is mostly evident in gaze durations; and (3) there are interference effects associated with using different parafoveal masks that roughly increase when the mask is less word-like.
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20
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Schotter ER. Reading Ahead by Hedging Our Bets on Seeing the Future. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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21
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Li N, Wang S, Mo L, Kliegl R. Contextual Constraint and Preview Time Modulate the Semantic Preview Effect: Evidence from Chinese Sentence Reading. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2017; 71:1-32. [PMID: 28332924 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1310914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Word recognition in sentence reading is influenced by information from both preview and context. Recently, semantic preview effect (SPE) was observed being modulated by the constraint of context, indicating that context might accelerate the processing of semantically related preview words. Besides, SPE was found to depend on preview time, which suggests SPE may change with different processing stages of preview words. Therefore it raises the question of whether preview-time-dependent SPE would be modulated by contextual constraint. In the current study, we investigated the impact of contextual constraint on SPE in Chinese reading, but also examined its dependency on preview time. The preview word and the target word were identical, semantically related, or unrelated to the target word. The results showed a significant three-way interaction: The SPE depended on contextual constraint and preview time. In separate analyses for low and high contextual constraint of target words, the SPE significantly decreased with an increase in preview duration when the target word was of low constraint in the sentence. The effect was numerically in the same direction, but weaker and statistically non-significant when the target word was highly constrained in the sentence. The results indicate that word processing in sentences is a dynamic process of integrating information from both preview (bottom up) and context (top down).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Li
- a Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science , South China Normal University , Guangzhou 510631 , P. R. China
- b Center for Studies of Psychological Application , South China Normal University
- c School of Psychology , South China Normal University
| | - Suiping Wang
- a Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science , South China Normal University , Guangzhou 510631 , P. R. China
- b Center for Studies of Psychological Application , South China Normal University
- c School of Psychology , South China Normal University
| | - Luxi Mo
- a Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science , South China Normal University , Guangzhou 510631 , P. R. China
- b Center for Studies of Psychological Application , South China Normal University
- c School of Psychology , South China Normal University
| | - Reinhold Kliegl
- d Department of Psychology , University of Potsdam , Germany
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22
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Liu Y, Huang R, Gao D, Reichle ED. Further Tests of a Dynamic-Adjustment Account of Saccade Targeting During the Reading of Chinese. Cogn Sci 2017; 41 Suppl 6:1264-1287. [PMID: 28295571 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
There are two accounts of how readers of unspaced writing systems (e.g., Chinese) know where to move their eyes: (a) saccades are directed toward default targets (e.g., centers of words that have been segmented in the parafovea); or (b) saccade lengths are adjusted dynamically, as a function of ongoing parafoveal processing. This article reports an eye-movement experiment supporting the latter hypothesis by demonstrating that the slope of the relationship between the saccade launch site on word N and the subsequent fixation landing site on word N + 1 is > 1, suggesting that saccades are lengthened from launch sites that afford more parafoveal processing. This conclusion is then evaluated and confirmed via simulations using implementations of both hypotheses (Liu, Reichle, & Li, 2016), with a discussion of these results for our understanding of saccadic targeting during reading and existing models of eye-movement control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Liu
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Ren Huang
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Dingguo Gao
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-sen University
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Parafoveal activation of sign translation previews among deaf readers during the reading of Chinese sentences. Mem Cognit 2016; 43:964-72. [PMID: 25707914 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-015-0511-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we manipulated the different types of information available in the parafovea during the reading of Chinese sentences and examined whether deaf readers could activate sign translations of Chinese words during reading. The main finding was that, as compared to unrelated previews, the deaf readers had longer fixation durations on the target words when sign-phonologically related preview words were presented; this preview cost effect due to sign-phonological relatedness was absent for reading-level-matched hearing individuals. These results indicate that Chinese deaf readers activate sign language translations of parafoveal words during reading. We discuss the implications for notions of parafoveal processing in reading.
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24
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Schotter ER, Jia A. Semantic and plausibility preview benefit effects in English: Evidence from eye movements. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2016; 42:1839-1866. [PMID: 27123754 PMCID: PMC5085893 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Theories of preview benefit in reading hinge on integration across saccades and the idea that preview benefit is greater the more similar the preview and target are. Schotter (2013) reported preview benefit from a synonymous preview, but it is unclear whether this effect occurs because of similarity between the preview and target (i.e., integration), or because of contextual fit of the preview-synonyms satisfy both accounts. Studies in Chinese have found evidence for preview benefit for words that are unrelated to the target, but are contextually plausible (Yang, Li, Wang, Slattery, & Rayner, 2014; Yang, Wang, Tong, & Rayner, 2012), which is incompatible with an integration account but supports a contextual fit account. Here, we used plausible and implausible unrelated previews in addition to plausible synonym, antonym, and identical previews to further investigate these accounts for readers of English. Early reading measures were shorter for all plausible preview conditions compared to the implausible preview condition. In later reading measures, a benefit for the plausible unrelated preview condition was not observed. In a second experiment, we asked questions that probed whether the reader encoded the preview or target. Readers were more likely to report the preview when they had skipped the word and not regressed to it, and when the preview was plausible. Thus, under certain circumstances, the preview word is processed to a high level of representation (i.e., semantic plausibility) regardless of its relationship to the target, but its influence on reading is relatively short-lived, being replaced by the target word, when fixated. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Annie Jia
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
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25
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Veldre A, Andrews S. Parafoveal preview effects depend on both preview plausibility and target predictability. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2016; 71:1-12. [PMID: 27734767 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1247894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies using the boundary paradigm have shown that readers benefit from a parafoveal preview of a plausible continuation of the sentence. This plausibility preview effect occurs irrespective of the semantic or orthographic relatedness of the preview and target word, suggesting that it depends on the degree to which a preview word fits the preceding context. The present study tested this hypothesis by examining the impact of contextual constraint on processing a plausible word in the parafovea. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences in which a target word was either highly predictable or unpredictable. The boundary paradigm was used to compare predictable, unpredictable, and implausible previews. The results showed that target predictability significantly modulated the effects of identical and plausible previews. Identical previews yielded significantly more benefit than plausible previews for highly predictable targets, but for unpredictable targets a plausible preview was as beneficial as an identical preview. The results shed light on the role of contextual predictability in early lexical processing. Furthermore, these data support the view that readers activate a set of appropriate words from the preceding sentence context, prior to the presentation of the target word.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Veldre
- a School of Psychology , University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
| | - Sally Andrews
- a School of Psychology , University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
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26
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Schotter ER, Leinenger M. Reversed preview benefit effects: Forced fixations emphasize the importance of parafoveal vision for efficient reading. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2016; 42:2039-2067. [PMID: 27732044 DOI: 10.1037/xhp0000270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Current theories of eye movement control in reading posit that processing of an upcoming parafoveal preview word is used to facilitate processing of that word once it is fixated (i.e., as a foveal target word). This preview benefit is demonstrated by shorter fixation durations in the case of valid (i.e., identical or linguistically similar) compared with invalid (i.e., dissimilar) preview conditions. However, we suggest that processing of the preview can directly influence fixation behavior on the target, independent of similarity between them. In Experiment 1, unrelated high and low frequency words were used as orthogonally crossed previews and targets and we observed a reversed preview benefit for low frequency targets-shorter fixation durations with an invalid, higher frequency preview compared with a valid, low frequency preview. In Experiment 2, the target words were replaced with orthographically legal and illegal nonwords and we found a similar effect of preview frequency on fixation durations on the targets, as well as a bimodal distribution in the illegal nonword target conditions with a denser early peak for high than low frequency previews. In Experiment 3, nonwords were used as previews for high and low frequency targets, replicating standard findings that "denied" preview increases fixation durations and the influence of target properties. These effects can be explained by forced fixations, cases in which fixations on the target were shortened as a consequence of the timing of word recognition of the preview relative to the time course of saccade programming to that word from the prior one. That is, the preview word was (at least partially) recognized so that it should have been skipped, but the word could not be skipped because the saccade to that word was in a nonlabile stage. In these cases, the system preinitiates the subsequent saccade off the upcoming word to the following word and the intervening fixation is short. (PsycINFO Database Record
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27
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Vasilev MR, Angele B. Parafoveal preview effects from word N + 1 and word N + 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2016. [PMID: 27576520 DOI: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The use of gaze-contingent display techniques to study reading has shown that readers attend not only the currently fixated word, but also the word to the right of the current fixation. However, a critical look at the literature shows that a number of questions cannot be readily answered from the available literature reviews on the topic. First, there is no consensus as to whether readers also attend the second word to the right of fixation. Second, it is not clear whether parafoveal processing is more efficient in languages such as Chinese. Third, it is not well understood whether the measured effects are confounded by the properties of the parafoveal mask. In the present study, we addressed these issues by performing a Bayesian meta-analysis of 93 experiments that used the boundary paradigm (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-81. doi: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5 , 1975). We describe three main findings: (1) The advantage of previewing the second word to the right is modest in size and likely is not centered on zero; (2) Chinese readers do seem to make more efficient use of parafoveal processing, but this is mostly evident in gaze durations; and (3) there are interference effects associated with using different parafoveal masks that roughly increase when the mask is less word-like.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin R Vasilev
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, Dorset, UK.
| | - Bernhard Angele
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, Dorset, UK
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28
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Liu Y, Reichle ED, Li X. The effect of word frequency and parafoveal preview on saccade length during the reading of Chinese. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2016; 42:1008-25. [PMID: 27045319 DOI: 10.1037/xhp0000190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
There are currently 2 theoretical accounts of how readers of Chinese select their saccade targets: (a) by moving their eyes to specific saccade targets (i.e., the default-targeting hypothesis) and (b) by adjusting their saccade lengths to accommodate lexical processing (i.e., the dynamic-adjustment hypothesis). In this article, we first report the results of an eye-movement experiment using a gaze-contingent boundary paradigm. This experiment demonstrates that both target-word frequency and its preview validity modulate the lengths of the saccades entering and exiting the target words, with longer saccades to/from high-frequency words when their preview was available. We then report the results of 2 simulations using computational models that instantiate the core theoretical assumptions of the default-targeting and dynamic-adjustment hypotheses. Comparisons of these simulations indicate that the dynamic-adjustment hypothesis provides a better quantitative account of the data from our experiment using fewer free parameters. We conclude by discussing evidence for dynamic saccade adjustment during the reading of alphabetic languages, and why such a heuristic may be necessary to fully explain eye-movement control during the reading of both alphabetic and nonalphabetic languages. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Liu
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | | | - Xingshan Li
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
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29
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Sheridan H, Reichle ED. An Analysis of the Time Course of Lexical Processing During Reading. Cogn Sci 2016; 40:522-53. [PMID: 25939443 PMCID: PMC5122144 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Reingold, Reichle, Glaholt, and Sheridan (2012) reported a gaze-contingent eye-movement experiment in which survival-curve analyses were used to examine the effects of word frequency, the availability of parafoveal preview, and initial fixation location on the time course of lexical processing. The key results of these analyses suggest that lexical processing begins very rapidly (after approximately 120 ms) and is supported by substantial parafoveal processing (more than 100 ms). Because it is not immediately obvious that these results are congruent with the theoretical assumption that words are processed and identified in a strictly serial manner, we attempted to simulate the experiment using the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control (Reichle, 2011). These simulations were largely consistent with the empirical results, suggesting that parafoveal processing does play an important functional role by allowing lexical processing to occur rapidly enough to mediate direct control over when the eyes move during reading.
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30
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Zhang W, Li N, Wang X, Wang S. Integration of Sentence-Level Semantic Information in Parafovea: Evidence from the RSVP-Flanker Paradigm. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139016. [PMID: 26418230 PMCID: PMC4587981 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During text reading, the parafoveal word was usually presented between 2° and 5° from the point of fixation. Whether semantic information of parafoveal words can be processed during sentence reading is a critical and long-standing issue. Recently, studies using the RSVP-flanker paradigm have shown that the incongruent parafoveal word, presented as right flanker, elicited a more negative N400 compared with the congruent parafoveal word. This suggests that the semantic information of parafoveal words can be extracted and integrated during sentence reading, because the N400 effect is a classical index of semantic integration. However, as most previous studies did not control the word-pair congruency of the parafoveal and the foveal words that were presented in the critical triad, it is still unclear whether such integration happened at the sentence level or just at the word-pair level. The present study addressed this question by manipulating verbs in Chinese sentences to yield either a semantically congruent or semantically incongruent context for the critical noun. In particular, the interval between the critical nouns and verbs was controlled to be 4 or 5 characters. Thus, to detect the incongruence of the parafoveal noun, participants had to integrate it with the global sentential context. The results revealed that the N400 time-locked to the critical triads was more negative in incongruent than in congruent sentences, suggesting that parafoveal semantic information can be integrated at the sentence level during Chinese reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjia Zhang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nan Li
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyue Wang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Suiping Wang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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31
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Li N, Niefind F, Wang S, Sommer W, Dimigen O. Parafoveal processing in reading Chinese sentences: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Psychophysiology 2015; 52:1361-74. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nan Li
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology; South China Normal University; Guangzhou China
| | - Florian Niefind
- Department of Psychology; Humboldt University at Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Suiping Wang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology; South China Normal University; Guangzhou China
| | - Werner Sommer
- Department of Psychology; Humboldt University at Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Olaf Dimigen
- Department of Psychology; Humboldt University at Berlin; Berlin Germany
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32
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Schotter ER, Lee M, Reiderman M, Rayner K. The effect of contextual constraint on parafoveal processing in reading. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2015; 83:118-139. [PMID: 26257469 PMCID: PMC4525713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2015.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Semantic preview benefit in reading is an elusive and controversial effect because empirical studies do not always (but sometimes) find evidence for it. Its presence seems to depend on (at least) the language being read, visual properties of the text (e.g., initial letter capitalization), the type of relationship between preview and target, and as shown here, semantic constraint generated by the prior sentence context. Schotter (2013) reported semantic preview benefit for synonyms, but not semantic associates when the preview/target was embedded in a neutral sentence context. In Experiment 1, we embedded those same previews/targets into constrained sentence contexts and in Experiment 2 we replicated the effects reported by Schotter (2013; in neutral sentence contexts) and Experiment 1 (in constrained contexts) in a within-subjects design. In both experiments, we found an early (i.e., first-pass) apparent preview benefit for semantically associated previews in constrained contexts that went away in late measures (e.g., total time). These data suggest that sentence constraint (at least as manipulated in the current study) does not operate by making a single word form expected, but rather generates expectations about what kinds of words are likely to appear. Furthermore, these data are compatible with the assumption of the E-Z Reader model that early oculomotor decisions reflect "hedged bets" that a word will be identifiable and, when wrong, lead the system to identify the wrong word, triggering regressions.
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33
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Cross-language parafoveal semantic processing: Evidence from Korean–Chinese bilinguals. Psychon Bull Rev 2015; 23:285-90. [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-015-0876-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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34
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Wang A, Zhou W, Shu H, Yan M. Reading proficiency modulates parafoveal processing efficiency: evidence from reading Chinese as a second language. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2014; 152:29-33. [PMID: 25103417 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we manipulated different types of information available in the parafovea during the reading of Chinese sentences and examined how native Korean readers who learned Chinese as a second language make use of the parafoveal information. Results clearly indicate that, only identical and orthographically similar previews facilitated processing of the target words when they were subsequently fixated. More critically, more parafoveal information was obtained by subjects with higher reading proficiency. These results suggest that, mainly low-level features of the parafoveal words are obtained by the non-native Chinese readers and less attentional resources are available for the readers with lower reading proficiency, thereby causing a reduction of the perceptual span.
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Yan M, Pan J, Bélanger NN, Shu H. Chinese deaf readers have early access to parafoveal semantics. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2014; 41:254-61. [PMID: 24999711 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, we manipulated different types of information available in the parafovea during the reading of Chinese sentences and examined how deaf readers make use of the parafoveal information. Results clearly indicate that although the reading-level matched hearing readers make greater use of orthographic information in the parafovea, parafoveal semantic information is obtained earlier among the deaf readers. In addition, a phonological preview benefit effect was found for the better deaf readers (relative to less-skilled deaf readers), although we also provide an alternative explanation for this effect. Providing evidence that Chinese deaf readers have higher efficiency when processing parafoveal semantics, the study indicates flexibility across individuals in the mechanisms underlying word recognition adapting to the inputs available in the linguistic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hua Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University
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Word skipping during sentence reading: effects of lexicality on parafoveal processing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2014; 76:201-13. [PMID: 24170376 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-013-0494-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments examined how lexical status affects the targeting of saccades during reading by using the boundary technique to vary independently the content of a letter string when seen in parafoveal preview and when directly fixated. Experiment 1 measured the skipping rate for a target word embedded in a sentence under three parafoveal preview conditions: full preview (e.g., brain-brain), pseudohomophone preview (e.g., brane-brain), and orthographic nonword control preview (e.g., brant-brain); in the first condition, the preview string was always an English word, while in the second and third conditions, it was always a nonword. Experiment 2 investigated three conditions where the preview string was always a word: full preview (e.g., beach-beach), homophone preview (e.g., beech-beach), and orthographic control preview (e.g., bench-beach). None of the letter string manipulations used to create the preview conditions in the experiments disrupted sublexical orthographic or phonological patterns. In Experiment 1, higher skipping rates were observed for the full (lexical) preview condition, which consisted of a word, than for the nonword preview conditions (pseudohomophone and orthographic control). In contrast, Experiment 2 showed no difference in skipping rates across the three types of lexical preview conditions (full, homophone, and orthographic control), although preview type did influence reading times. This pattern indicates that skipping not only depends on the presence of disrupted sublexical patterns of orthography or phonology, but also is critically dependent on processes that are sensitive to the lexical status of letter strings in the parafovea.
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Rayner K, Schotter ER. Semantic preview benefit in reading English: The effect of initial letter capitalization. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2014; 40:1617-28. [PMID: 24820439 DOI: 10.1037/a0036763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A major controversy in reading research is whether semantic information is obtained from the word to the right of the currently fixated word (word n + 1). Although most evidence has been negative in English, semantic preview benefit has been observed for readers of Chinese and German. In the present experiment, we investigated whether the discrepancy between English and German may be attributable to a difference in visual properties of the orthography: the first letter of a noun is always capitalized in German, but is only occasionally capitalized in English. This visually salient property may draw greater attention to the word during parafoveal preview and thus increase preview benefit generally (and lead to a greater opportunity for semantic preview benefit). We used English target nouns that can either be capitalized (e.g., We went to the critically acclaimed Ballet of Paris while on vacation.) or not (e.g., We went to the critically acclaimed ballet that was showing in Paris.) and manipulated the capitalization of the preview accordingly, to determine whether capitalization modulates preview benefit in English. The gaze-contingent boundary paradigm was used with identical, semantically related, and unrelated previews. Consistent with our hypothesis, we found numerically larger preview benefits when the preview/target was capitalized than when it was lowercase. Crucially, semantic preview benefit was not observed when the preview/target word was not capitalized, but was observed when the preview/target word was capitalized.
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Yang J, Li N, Wang S, Slattery TJ, Rayner K. Encoding the target or the plausible preview word? The nature of the plausibility preview benefit in reading Chinese. VISUAL COGNITION 2014; 22:193-213. [PMID: 24910514 DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2014.890689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that a plausible preview word can facilitate the processing of a target word as compared to an implausible preview word (a plausibility preview benefit effect) when reading Chinese (Yang, Wang, Tong, & Rayner, 2012; Yang, 2013). Regarding the nature of this effect, it is possible that readers processed the meaning of the plausible preview word and did not actually encode the target word (given that the parafoveal preview word lies close to the fovea). The current experiment examined this possibility with three conditions wherein readers received a preview of a target word that was either (1) identical to the target word (identical preview), (2) a plausible continuation of the pre-target text, but the post-target text in the sentence was incompatible with it (initially plausible preview), or (3) not a plausible continuation of the pre-target text, nor compatible with the post-target text (implausible preview). Gaze durations on target words were longer in the initially plausible condition than the identical condition. Overall, the results showed a typical preview benefit, but also implied that readers did not encode the initially plausible preview. Also, a plausibility preview benefit was replicated: gaze durations were longer with implausible previews than the initially plausible ones. Furthermore, late eye movement measures did not reveal differences between the initially plausible and the implausible preview conditions, which argues against the possibility of misreading the plausible preview word as the target word. In sum, these results suggest that a plausible preview word provides benefit in processing the target word as compared to an implausible preview word, and this benefit is only present in early but not late eye movement measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinmian Yang
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875 China ; Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, 92092, USA
| | - Nan Li
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631,China
| | - Suiping Wang
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631,China
| | - Timothy J Slattery
- Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, USA
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, 92092, USA
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Schotter ER, Reichle ED, Rayner K. Rethinking parafoveal processing in reading: Serial-attention models can explain semantic preview benefit andN+2 preview effects. VISUAL COGNITION 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.873508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Schotter ER. Synonyms Provide Semantic Preview Benefit in English. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2013; 69:10.1016/j.jml.2013.09.002. [PMID: 24347813 PMCID: PMC3859233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2013.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
While orthographic and phonological preview benefits in reading are uncontroversial (see Schotter, Angele, & Rayner, 2012 for a review), researchers have debated the existence of semantic preview benefit with positive evidence in Chinese and German, but no support in English. Two experiments, using the gazecontingent boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975), show that semantic preview benefit can be observed in English when the preview and target are synonyms (share the same or highly similar meaning, e.g., curlers-rollers). However, no semantic preview benefit was observed for semantic associates (e.g., curlers-styling). These different preview conditions represent different degrees to which the meaning of the sentence changes when the preview is replaced by the target. When this continuous variable (determined by a norming procedure) was used as the predictor in the analyses, there was a significant relationship between it and all reading time measures, suggesting that similarity in meaning between what is accessed parafoveally and what is processed foveally may be an important influence on the presence of semantic preview benefit. Why synonyms provide semantic preview benefit in reading English is discussed in relation to (1) previous failures to find semantic preview benefit in English and (2) the fact that semantic preview benefit is observed in other languages even for non-synonymous words. Semantic preview benefit is argued to depend on several factors-attentional resources, depth of orthography, and degree of similarity between preview and target.
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Han P, Saunders DR, Woods RL, Luo G. Trajectory prediction of saccadic eye movements using a compressed exponential model. J Vis 2013; 13:13.8.27. [PMID: 23902753 DOI: 10.1167/13.8.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Gaze-contingent display paradigms play an important role in vision research. The time delay due to data transmission from eye tracker to monitor may lead to a misalignment between the gaze direction and image manipulation during eye movements, and therefore compromise the contingency. We present a method to reduce this misalignment by using a compressed exponential function to model the trajectories of saccadic eye movements. Our algorithm was evaluated using experimental data from 1,212 saccades ranging from 3° to 30°, which were collected with an EyeLink 1000 and a Dual-Purkinje Image (DPI) eye tracker. The model fits eye displacement with a high agreement (R² > 0.96). When assuming a 10-millisecond time delay, prediction of 2D saccade trajectories using our model could reduce the misalignment by 30% to 60% with the EyeLink tracker and 20% to 40% with the DPI tracker for saccades larger than 8°. Because a certain number of samples are required for model fitting, the prediction did not offer improvement for most small saccades and the early stages of large saccades. Evaluation was also performed for a simulated 100-Hz gaze-contingent display using the prerecorded saccade data. With prediction, the percentage of misalignment larger than 2° dropped from 45% to 20% for EyeLink and 42% to 26% for DPI data. These results suggest that the saccade-prediction algorithm may help create more accurate gaze-contingent displays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Han
- School of Physics and Telecommunication Engineering, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
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Abstract
The study of eye movements has proven to be one of the most successful approaches in research on reading. In this overview, it is argued that a major reason for this success is that eye movement measurement is not just a methodology--the control of eye movements is actually part and parcel of the dynamics of information processing within the task of reading itself. Some major developments over the last decade are discussed with a focus on the issue of spatially distributed word processing and its relation to the development of reading models. The survey ends with a description of two newly emerging trends in the field: the study of continuous reading in non-Roman writing systems and the broadening of the scope of research to encompass individual differences and developmental issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph Radach
- General and Biological Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany.
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Yang J, Staub A, Li N, Wang S, Rayner K. Plausibility effects when reading one- and two-character words in Chinese: evidence from eye movements. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2012; 38:1801-9. [PMID: 22612173 PMCID: PMC3683136 DOI: 10.1037/a0028478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Eye movements of Chinese readers were monitored as they read sentences containing a critical character that was either a 1-character word or the initial character of a 2-character word. Due to manipulation of the verb prior to the target word, the 1-character target word (or the first character of the 2-character target word) was either plausible or implausible, as an independent word, at the point at which it appeared, whereas the 2-character word was always plausible. The eye movement data showed that the plausibility manipulation did not exert an influence on the reading of the 2-character word or its component characters. However, plausibility significantly influenced reading of the 1-character target word. These results suggest that processes of semantic integration in reading Chinese are performed at a word level, instead of a character level, and that word segmentation must take place very early in the course of processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinmian Yang
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Adrian Staub
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA
| | - Nan Li
- Department of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Suiping Wang
- Department of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, USA
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Tsai JL, Kliegl R, Yan M. Parafoveal semantic information extraction in traditional Chinese reading. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2012; 141:17-23. [PMID: 22820455 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Semantic information extraction from the parafovea has been reported only in simplified Chinese for a special subset of characters and its generalizability has been questioned. This study uses traditional Chinese, which differs from simplified Chinese in visual complexity and in mapping semantic forms, to demonstrate access to parafoveal semantic information during reading of this script. Preview duration modulates various types (identical, phonological, and unrelated) of parafoveal information extraction. Parafoveal semantic extraction is more elusive in English; therefore, we conclude that such effects in Chinese are presumably caused by substantial cross-language differences from alphabetic scripts. The property of Chinese characters carrying rich lexical information in a small region provides the possibility of semantic extraction in the parafovea.
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Tsang YK, Chen HC. Eye movement control in reading: Logographic Chinese versus alphabetic scripts. Psych J 2012; 1:128-42. [DOI: 10.1002/pchj.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yiu-Kei Tsang
- Department of Psychology; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Hong Kong
| | - Hsuan-Chih Chen
- Department of Psychology; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Hong Kong
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Angele B, Rayner K. Eye movements and parafoveal preview of compound words: does morpheme order matter? Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2012; 66:505-26. [PMID: 22712548 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2011.644572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Recently, there has been considerable debate about whether readers can identify multiple words in parallel or whether they are limited to a serial mode of word identification, processing one word at a time (see, e.g., Reichle, Liversedge, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2009). Similar questions can be applied to bimorphemic compound words: Do readers identify all the constituents of a compound word in parallel, and does it matter which of the morphemes is identified first? We asked subjects to read compound words embedded in sentences while monitoring their eye movements. Using the boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975), we manipulated the preview that subjects received of the compound word before they fixated it. In particular, the morpheme order of the preview was either normal (cowboy) or reversed (boycow). Additionally, we manipulated the preview availability for each of the morphemes separately. Preview was thus available for the first morpheme only (cowtxg), for the second morpheme only (enzboy), or for neither of the morphemes (enztxg). We report three major findings: First, there was an effect of morpheme order on gaze durations measured on the compound word, indicating that, as expected, readers obtained a greater preview benefit when the preview presented the morphemes in the correct order than when their order was reversed. Second, gaze durations on the compound word were influenced not only by preview availability for the first, but also by that for the second morpheme. Finally, and most importantly, the results show that readers are able to extract some morpheme information even from a reverse order preview. In summary, readers obtain preview benefit from both constituents of a short compound word, even when the preview does not reflect the correct morpheme order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Angele
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093-0109, USA.
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