French Children’s Awareness of Gender Stereotypes About Mathematics and Reading: When Girls Improve Their Reputation in Math

Do gender stereotype threats have a spillover effect on motor tasks among children? A mixed-model design investigation

OBJECTIVES

The stereotype threat effect has captivated social and sports psychology researchers for over two decades. However, many questions remain unanswered. This research was designed to explore the spillover effects of stereotype threat in motor tasks.

DESIGN

A mixed model design with within-between-subjects was utilized, with soccer performance and throwing scores serving as the dependent variables.

METHOD

Forty-two 10-year-old girls without mental or physical disabilities participated in the study and were randomly assigned into two groups: stereotype threat (ST) and nullified stereotype threat (NST). After measuring baseline performance in throwing and soccer tasks, the participants in the ST group received soccer-based stereotype induction. Afterwards, they performed 20 trials of soccer shooting. Half an hour later, the children were asked to perform 10 throws with the non-dominant hand.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that inducing soccer-based stereotypes towards girls led to underperformance in soccer, however, this negative effect did not spill over onto subsequent task (i.e., throwing) which was unrelated to the induced stereotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Our finding regarding the stereotype threat spillover effect is novel and provides more insight into the range of effects of stereotype threat within the motor domain. The findings encourage the researcher to practice caution regarding the generalizability of the stereotype threat spillover effect, especially in motor tasks.

What books should we like? A study of gender differences and stereotypes in the reading behaviors of Chinese middle school students

INTRODUCTION

This study investigated gender differences in the reading behaviors of Chinese middle school students, and whether gender stereotypes relating to choices of reading matter are supported.

METHODS

A mixed-methods approach was adopted. Three thousand nine hundred and fifteen middle school (Grade 7) students completed a questionnaire designed to assess reading behaviors. Independent sample t-test and chi-square analyses were employed to examine gender differences in reading behaviors. The qualitative survey was supplemented with an open response survey (94 boys, 50 girls), which provided further insights into individuals' specific experiences and perspectives regarding reading behaviors and gender stereotypes in reading choices.

RESULTS

This study revealed a number of gender-linked differences. Boys spent more time reading than girls but read the same number of books; boys were also more likely than girls to read digital texts, while girls were more likely to borrow their reading material. Choice of subject matter also differed: boys were more likely to read factual and action-based books, while girls' choices focused more on motives and emotions. Another significant difference was that boys paid more attention to the overall experience of reading, while girls paid more attention to the details of reading. Responses to the open response survey indicated that gender stereotypes in reading choices were prevalent among respondents, but some students' reading choices did not align with the stereotype associated with their gender.

CONCLUSION

The mixed-methods approach proved valuable in both identifying gender differences in reading behaviors, and in highlighting the prevalence of gender stereotypes in reading choices among middle school students.

The Impact of Math-Gender Stereotypes on Students' Academic Performance: Evidence from China

This study investigates the impact of math-gender stereotypes on students' academic performance using data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS), which surveyed nationally representative middle schools in China. Our sample comprises over 2000 seventh-grade students, with an average age of 13 and a standard deviation of 0.711. Among these students, 52.4% are male, and 47.6% are female. Employing a fixed effects model and instrumental variable, our findings are as follows. First, over half of the male students believe that boys are better at math than girls, and they also perceive that their parents and society hold the same belief. In contrast, fewer than half of the female students hold this belief or perception. Intriguingly, among these students, female math performance surpasses that of males. Second, stereotypes hinder female math performance, especially among low-achieving ones, while benefiting high-achieving male students. Finally, perceptions of societal stereotypes have the greatest effect on math performance, followed by self-stereotypes and perceptions of parental stereotypes. Understanding the implications of these findings highlights the importance of addressing math-gender stereotypes to promote equal participation and success for both genders in STEM fields.

The cost of social influence: Own-gender and gender-stereotype social learning biases in adolescents and adults

Pervasive gender gaps in academic subject and career choices are likely to be underpinned by social influences, including gender stereotypes of competence in academic and career domains (e.g., men excel at engineering, women excel at care), and model-based social learning biases (i.e., selective copying of particular individuals). Here, we explore the influence of gender stereotypes on social learning decisions in adolescent and adult males and females. Participants (Exp 1: N = 69 adolescents; Exp 2: N = 265 adults) were presented with 16 difficult multiple-choice questions from stereotypically feminine (e.g., care) and masculine (e.g., engineering) domains. The answer choices included the correct response and three incorrect responses paired with a male model, a female model, or no model. Participants' gender stereotype knowledge and endorsement were measured, and adolescents (Exp. 1) listed their academic subject choices. As predicted, there was a bias towards copying answers paired with a model (Exp.1: 74%, Exp. 2: 65% ps < .001). This resulted in less success than would be expected by chance (Exp. 1: 12%, Exp. 2: 16% ps < .001), demonstrating a negative consequence of social information. Adults (Exp 2) showed gender stereotyped social learning biases; they were more likely to copy a male model in masculine questions and a female model in feminine questions (p = .012). However, adolescents (Exp 1) showed no evidence of this stereotype bias; rather, there was a tendency for male adolescents to copy male models regardless of domain (p = .004). This own-gender bias was not apparent in female adolescents. In Exp 1, endorsement of masculine stereotypes was positively associated with selecting more own-gender typical academic subjects at school and copying significantly more male models in the male questions. The current study provides evidence for the first time that decision-making in both adolescence and adulthood is impacted by gender biases.

Formation of Stereotypes of Human Behaviour under the Influence of Childhood Fears

The relevance of the study is due to the presence of a relationship that occurs between the emotional and intellectual development of the individual. Negative changes in the process of emotional development of a person lead to the fact that they are unable to use other structures, in particular, intelligence, and therefore develop harmoniously. As a basic emotion, fear is an integral part of the emotional field, as is the emotion of joy, sadness, and anger. Fear performs a protective function, but it also destroys the individual if it is irrational. The emotion of fear, arising in childhood, can be fixed and transformed into more acute manifestations, that is, into phobic disorders. Personality is formed under the influence of society, so a very important role in its development is played by models of upbringing in the family and those attitudes and prescriptions that a person learns from childhood. In adulthood, these patterns are manifested in the form of stereotypical behaviour, which substantially affects a person’s quality of life. Therefore, it is important to clarify how childhood fears can affect the individual in adulthood. The purpose of this study is to establish a link between childhood fears and stereotypical behaviour. A number of methods and techniques were used to achieve this goal, including theoretical (analysis, synthesis, generalisation) and practical (D. McLain’s general tolerance for uncertainty scale; tolerance-intolerance of ambiguity questionnaire by T.V. Kornilova; questionnaire of childhood fears). The results of the study show that in the case when a person cannot safely live through fears as a child, they have an impact on the psychological well-being of the individual, which encourages the formation of psychological problems. It is proved that as a result of gender stereotypes in education, male and female fears formed in childhood differ markedly. Therewith, it is noted that certain stereotypes have a positive meaning in a person’s life if they do not suppress their psychological development. The research materials will be useful for practical psychologists in the education and social fields, and teachers

Gender Stereotypes and Peer Selection in STEM Domains Among Children and Adolescents

Gender stereotypes are harmful for girls’ enrollment and performance in science and mathematics. So far, less is known about children’s and adolescents’ stereotypes regarding technology and engineering. In the current study, participants’ (N = 1,206, girls n = 623; 5–17-years-old, M = 8.63, SD = 2.81) gender stereotypes for each of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) domains were assessed along with the relation between these stereotypes and a peer selection task in a STEM context. Participants reported beliefs that boys are usually more skilled than are girls in the domains of engineering and technology; however, participants did not report gender differences in ability/performance in science and mathematics. Responses to the stereotype measures in favor of one’s in-group were greater for younger participants than older participants for both boys and girls. Perceptions that boys are usually better than girls at science were related to a greater likelihood of selecting a boy for help with a science question. These findings document the importance of domain specificity, even within STEM, in attempts to measure and challenge gender stereotypes in childhood and adolescence.

Gender stereotypes: implicit threat to performance or boost for motivational aspects in primary school?

Based on stereotype threat and stereotype lift theory, this study explores implicit stereotype threat effects of gender stereotypes on the performance of primary school children in mathematics. Moreover, effects of implicit gender stereotypical cues (gender-specific task material) on motivational aspects were explored, which have revealed mixed results in stereotype threat research in the past. N = 151 German primary school children (47.7% female; mean age: M = 9.81, SD = 0.60) calculated either stereotypical or neutral mathematical text problems before motivational aspects were assessed. Contradicting our expectations, results neither revealed a stereotype threat effect on girls’ performance nor a lift effect on the boys. Instead, girls calculating stereotypical tasks outperformed girls in the control group, whereas boys’ performance did not significantly differ compared to the control group. Regarding motivational aspects, only traditional gender differences emerged as girls reported significantly more pressure and tension calculating the mathematical tasks. The discussion focuses on the way in which stereotypes can affect children’s cognitive performance and in turn, their mathematical performance.

Self-Control Capacity Moderates the Effect of Stereotype Threat on Female University Students' Worry During a Math Performance Situation

Stereotype threat is a possible reason for difficulties faced by girls and women in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The threat experienced due to gender can cause elevated worry during performance situations. That is, if the stereotype that women are not as good as men in math becomes salient, this stereotype activation draws women's attention to task-irrelevant worry caused by the fear of conforming to the negative stereotype. Increased worry can reduce cognitive resources, potentially leading to performance decrements. We argue that such worry is more pronounced immediately after an unrelated self-control demand, which is assumed to temporarily decrease people's self-control exertion over their attention and stream of thought (i.e., relatively low self-control capacity). This prediction was examined in an experiment conducted with 102 participating university students enrolled in courses in which math plays a crucial role. After the manipulation of self-control capacity (low vs. high), stereotype threat was induced for the female students, but not the male students. Then, the students were asked to report their thoughts during a math performance situation (i.e., written thought protocols) three times. Multiple-group autoregressive path models revealed that when self-control capacity was relatively low, female compared with male students reported more intense worry in the initial two thought protocols. In contrast, in the relatively high self-control capacity condition, female and male students did not differ significantly in their reported worry at any time. These results expand on previous findings, suggesting that threat effects depend on definable situational self-control conditions.

The academic success of boys and girls as an identity issue in gender relations: when the most threatened is not the one expected

The present research aims to determine whether girls' higher academic achievement, which should grant them a higher academic status than boys, could prevent them from experiencing social-identity threat on this dimension. Because they fear situations questioning their superiority, we argue that an unfavorable intergroup comparison would be more threatening for the high-status, rather than low-status, group on the dimension of academic achievement. Two studies were conducted, respectively, in high school, where girls should represent the high-status group (Study 1), and middle school, where students might perceive their own group as the high-status group (Study 2). Although both middle-school and high-school students perceived girls as the high-status group, they appraised the outgroup superiority differently. Indeed, it had more impact on girls' perceived threat and boys' perceived challenge in high school (Study 1), but not in middle school (Study 2). The results, however, did not show significant impact of context on performance.

Is reading a feminine domain? The role of gender identity and stereotypes in reading motivation in Chile

In Chile, as in other countries, there are large gender gaps in reading achievement. One factor that may explain some of these results is male and female students’ motivation towards reading and books. The present study examined gender-related factors that contribute to explain students’ reading motivation. One hundred and fifteen Chilean secondary students completed measures of reading motivation, gender identity and reading gender stereotypes. A multivariate analysis of variance showed that after controlling for language arts achievement, female students exhibited higher levels of reading motivation, in both dimensions: self-concept and value. Paired samples t-tests showed that all participants, male and female, viewed reading as a more feminine endeavor, revealing reading gender stereotypes. A multiple regression analysis showed that reading gender stereotypes explained significant variance in students’ reading self-concept. Expressive identity traits (stereotypically feminine) as well as self-reported sexism both explained significant variance in the value that students associated with reading. The study offers empirical evidence about a relevant but understudied topic, especially in this region. These findings may contribute to the promotion of equal literacy development opportunities for students of both sexes in Latin America.

Factors Promoting Learning With a Web Application on Earthquake-Related Emotional Preparedness in Primary School

Little is known about interventions aimed at building children's emotional resilience to combat the psychological trauma associated with future earthquakes. However, natural disasters have potentially a highly traumatic impact on children's psychological functioning. Therefore, within the Emotional Prevention and Earthquakes in a primary school project, we developed a web application promoting earthquake-related emotional preparedness called HEMOT® (Helmet for EMOTions). We studied the role of achievement emotions as factors associated to learning using the web application, coherently with the assumptions of the control-value theory. We also took into account class level and gender. We involved 64 second and fourth graders who used a nine-level web application focused on earthquake-related knowledge, emotions, and emotion regulation. We assessed children's digital self-concept, learning at the web application (operationalized as digital text comprehension), application-related achievement emotions, and text comprehension. We analyzed the data through linear and generalized linear models, and path analyses. First, our findings documented class differences in some of the examined constructs: Pride was higher for younger compared to older children, while the digital performance was higher for older compared to younger students. Second, digital self-concept was positively linked to application-related pride and relaxation. In turn, pride, relaxation, and sadness, and also text comprehension, were linked to the digital performance. With some exceptions, these relations were in line with the assumptions of the control-value theory, extending it to a context disregarded within the current literature. This knowledge is a first step to develop further interventions fostering children's resources to promote learning related to emotional preparedness.

Beware of Stereotypes: Are Classmates' Stereotypes Associated With Students' Reading Outcomes?

This study examined the associations between classmates' reading-related gender stereotypes and students' reading self-efficacy, self-concept, motivation, and achievement. Our sample consisted of 1,508 fifth-grade students (49% girls; age: 10.89 years); data were collected at two time points. Multilevel analyses yielded two main results: First, there was a relation between students' individual reading-related gender stereotypes and their reading self-concept, self-efficacy, and motivation with boys experiencing negative and girls experiencing positive effects. Second, a contextual effect was found: after controlling for students' individual reading-related gender stereotypes, classmates' gender stereotypes were negatively related to all of the boys' reading outcomes. The results provide evidence for the assumption that classmates are important communicators of gender stereotypes and that they reinforce conforming behaviors.

Warum schätzen Mädchen ihre mathematischen Kompetenzen geringer ein als Jungen?

Zusammenfassung. Trotz sehr geringer Leistungsunterschiede in objektiven Leistungstests schätzen Mädchen ihre mathematischen Kompetenzen bereits im Grundschulalter geringer ein als Jungen. Basierend auf dem Erwartungs-Wert-Modell ( Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ) wird überprüft, inwieweit Geschlechtsunterschiede im mathematischen Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept durch Eltern- und Lehrereinschätzungen der mathematischen Kompetenzen der Kinder sowie unterschiedliche Leistungsindikatoren erklärt werden können. Es wurden Selbst-‍, Eltern- und Lehrereinschätzungen der mathematischen Kompetenzen von N = 837 Kindern der vierten Klasse sowie deren Noten und objektive Leistungen in Mathematik erfasst. Jungen gaben ein höheres Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept an als Mädchen. Objektive Mathematikleistungen mediierten den Zusammenhang nicht, Mathematiknoten sowie Eltern- und Lehrereinschätzungen hingegen teilweise. Die Ergebnisse werden vor dem Hintergrund der Rolle wichtiger Sozialisationspersonen und anderer potentieller Faktoren für die Entwicklung des mathematischen Fähigkeitsselbstkonzepts im Grundschulalter diskutiert.

Gender differences in mathematics achievement in Beijing: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The topic of gender differences in mathematical performance has received considerable attention in the fields of education, sociology, economics and psychology.

AIMS

We analysed gender differences based on data from the Beijing Assessment of Educational Quality in China.

SAMPLE

A large data set of Grade 5 and Grade 8 students who took the mathematical test from 2008 to 2013 (n = 73,318) were analysed.

METHOD

Meta-analysis was used in this research.

RESULTS

The findings were as follows. (1) No gender differences in mathematical achievement exist among students in Grade 5, relatively small gender differences exist in Grade 8, females scored higher than males, and variance of male students is larger than that of females in both Grade 5 and Grade 8. (2) Except for statistics and probability, gender differences in other domains in Grade 8 are significantly higher than those in Grade 5, and female students outperform males. (3) The ratio of students of both gender in Grade 5 and Grade 8 at the 95-100% percentile level shows no significant differences. However, the ratio of male students is significantly higher than that of females at the 0-5% percentile level. (4) In Grade 5, the extent to which females outperformed males in low SES group is larger than that in higher SES groups, and in Grade 8, the magnitude of gender differences in urban schools is smaller than that in rural schools.

CONCLUSION

There is a small gender difference among the 8th graders, with the male disadvantage at the bottom of the distribution. And gender differences also vary across school locations.

Stereotype Threat Among Girls

Effects of stereotype threat on math performance have been well-documented among college women; however, the prevalence among adolescent girls is less well-known. Further, the moderating role of gender identity and effects of stereotype threat on high achieving girls in math is unknown. This study tested the effects of a stereotype threat condition (vs. control group) among middle school girls in standard and honors math classes and examined gender identity as a moderator. Students ( N = 498) completed pre- and post-questionnaires and a math test as part of a stereotype threat experiment. Gender identity moderated effects of stereotype threat on math discounting, disengagement, attitudes, and performance, but whether gender identity was a protective or risk factor differed by math education context (honors math and standard math classes). Gender identity was protective for girls in honors math for attitudes, discounting, and disengagement but was a risk factor for math performance. Gender identity was a risk factor for disengagement and math attitudes among girls in standard math classes, but was a buffer for math performance. Results suggest the need to examine protective and risk properties of gender identity importance for adolescent girls and the need to examine stereotype threat within educational contexts. Stereotype threat can be reduced through interventions; thus, educators and practitioners can collaborate with social scientists to implement widespread interventions in K–12 schools. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684317711412 . Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

Reading is for girls!? The negative impact of preschool teachers' traditional gender role attitudes on boys' reading related motivation and skills

According to gender stereotypes, reading is for girls. In this study, we investigated the role of preschool teachers in transmitting such gendered expectations. We suggest that boys are less motivated to read in preschool, and less competent in reading 1 year later in primary school, if their preschool teacher holds a traditional gender role attitude than if the teacher has egalitarian beliefs. In 135 independent dyads of a female preschool teacher (N = 135) and one boy (n = 65) or one girl (n = 70) we measured teacher's gender role attitude, child's reading related motivation as well as precursors of reading skills in preschool, and child's reading skills at the end of first grade in primary school. As expected, the more traditional preschool teachers' gender role attitude was, the weaker was boys' motivation to (learn to) read while girls' motivation was unrelated to teachers' gender role attitude. In either gender, motivation in preschool predicted reading skills at the end of first grade.

Does stereotype threat influence performance of girls in stereotyped domains? A meta-analysis

Although the effect of stereotype threat concerning women and mathematics has been subject to various systematic reviews, none of them have been performed on the sub-population of children and adolescents. In this meta-analysis we estimated the effects of stereotype threat on performance of girls on math, science and spatial skills (MSSS) tests. Moreover, we studied publication bias and four moderators: test difficulty, presence of boys, gender equality within countries, and the type of control group that was used in the studies. We selected study samples when the study included girls, samples had a mean age below 18years, the design was (quasi-)experimental, the stereotype threat manipulation was administered between-subjects, and the dependent variable was a MSSS test related to a gender stereotype favoring boys. To analyze the 47 effect sizes, we used random effects and mixed effects models. The estimated mean effect size equaled -0.22 and significantly differed from 0. None of the moderator variables was significant; however, there were several signs for the presence of publication bias. We conclude that publication bias might seriously distort the literature on the effects of stereotype threat among schoolgirls. We propose a large replication study to provide a less biased effect size estimate.

The roots of stereotype threat: when automatic associations disrupt girls' math performance

Although stereotype awareness is a prerequisite for stereotype threat effects (Steele & Aronson, 1995), research showed girls' deficit under stereotype threat before the emergence of math-gender stereotype awareness, and in the absence of stereotype endorsement. In a study including 240 six-year-old children, this paradox was addressed by testing whether automatic associations trigger stereotype threat in young girls. Whereas no indicators were found that children endorsed the math-gender stereotype, girls, but not boys, showed automatic associations consistent with the stereotype. Moreover, results showed that girls' automatic associations varied as a function of a manipulation regarding the stereotype content. Importantly, girls' math performance decreased in a stereotype-consistent, relative to a stereotype-inconsistent, condition and automatic associations mediated the relation between stereotype threat and performance.