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Mai A, Hadnagy E, Shi Q, Ezeonu L, Robbins JP, Podkolzin SG, Koutsospyros A, Christodoulatos C. Degradation and fate of 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and its intermediates treated with Mg/Cu bimetal: Surface examination with XAS, DFT, and LDI-MS. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 129:161-173. [PMID: 36804233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A novel Mg-based bimetal reagent (Mg/Cu) was used as an enhanced reductive system to degrade insensitive munition 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), a contaminant found in energetic-laden waste. Degradation of DNAN was significantly impacted by dissolved oxygen and studied in anoxic and oxic bimetal systems (i.e., purging with N2, air, or O2 gas). Degradation occurred through sequential nitroreduction: first one nitro group was reduced (ortho or para) to form short-lived intermediates 2-amino-4-nitroanisole or 4-amino-2-nitroanisole (2-ANAN or 4-ANAN), and then subsequent reduction of the other nitro group formed 2,4-diaminoanisole (DAAN). The nitro-amino intermediates demonstrated regioselective reduction in the ortho position to 2-ANAN; Regioselectivity was also impacted by the anoxic/oxic environment. Under O2-purging DNAN degradation rate was slightly enhanced, but most notably O2 significantly accelerated DAAN generation. DAAN also further degraded only in the oxygenated Mg/Cu system. Adsorption of DNAN byproducts to the reagent occurred regardless of anoxic/oxic condition, resulting in a partition of carbon mass between the adsorbed phase (27%-35%) and dissolved phase (59%-72%). Additional surface techniques were applied to investigate contaminant interaction with Cu. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations identified preferential adsorption structures for DNAN on Cu with binding through two O atoms of one or both nitro groups. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements determined the oxidation state of catalytic metal Cu and formation of a Cu-O-N bond during treatment. Laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (LDI-MS) measurements also identified intermediate 2-ANAN adsorbed to the bimetal surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Mai
- Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA.
| | - Emese Hadnagy
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA
| | - Qiantao Shi
- Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
| | - Lotanna Ezeonu
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA
| | - Jason P Robbins
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA
| | - Simon G Podkolzin
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA
| | - Agamemnon Koutsospyros
- Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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Gutierrez-Carazo E, Dowle J, Coulon F, Temple T, Ladyman M. Predicting the transport of 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) in sandy and sandy loam soils. Heliyon 2022; 8:e11758. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Menezes O, Yu Y, Root RA, Gavazza S, Chorover J, Sierra-Alvarez R, Field JA. Iron(II) monosulfide (FeS) minerals reductively transform the insensitive munitions compounds 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO). CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 285:131409. [PMID: 34271466 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
As military applications of the insensitive munitions compounds (IMCs) 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) increase, there is a growing need to understand their environmental fate and to develop remediation strategies to mitigate their impacts. Iron (II) monosulfide (FeS) minerals are abundant in freshwater and marine sediments, marshes, and hydrothermal environments. This study shows that FeS solids can reduce DNAN and NTO to their corresponding amines under anoxic ambient conditions. The reactions between IMCs and the FeS minerals were surface-mediated since they did not occur when only dissolved Fe2+(aq) and S2-(aq) were present. Mackinawite, a tetragonal FeS with a layered structure, reduced DNAN mainly to 2-methoxy-5-nitroaniline (MENA), which in turn was partially reduced to 2-4-diaminoanisole (DAAN). The layered structure of mackinawite provided intercalation sites likely responsible for partial adsorption of MENA and DAAN. Mackinawite entirely reduced NTO to 3-amino-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (ATO). The reduction of IMCs showed concurrent oxidation of mackinawite to goethite and elemental sulfur. A commercial FeS product, composed mainly of pyrrhotite and troilite, reduced DNAN to DAAN and NTO to ATO. At pH 6.5, DNAN and NTO transformation rates were 667 and 912 μmol h-1 m-2, respectively, on the mackinawite surface and 417 and 1344 μmol h-1 m-2, respectively, on the commercial FeS surface. This is the first report of the reduction of a nitro-heterocyclic compound (NTO) by FeS minerals. The evidence indicates that DNAN and NTO can be rapidly transformed to their succeeding amines in anoxic subsurface environments and aquatic sediments rich in FeS minerals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osmar Menezes
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA; Laboratório de Saneamento Ambiental, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, 50740-530, Brazil
| | - Youngjae Yu
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Robert A Root
- Department of Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Savia Gavazza
- Laboratório de Saneamento Ambiental, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, 50740-530, Brazil
| | - Jon Chorover
- Department of Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Reyes Sierra-Alvarez
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Jim A Field
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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Liu C, Chen X, Banwart SA, Du W, Yin Y, Guo H. A novel permeable reactive biobarrier for ortho-nitrochlorobenzene pollution control in groundwater: Experimental evaluation and kinetic modelling. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 420:126563. [PMID: 34271441 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Three novel permeable reactive barrier (PRB) materials composed of Cu/Fe with 0.24% and 0.43% (w/w) Cu loadings or Fe0 supported on wheat straw were prepared (termed materials E, F and G). These materials exhibited excellent pollutant removal efficiency and physical stability as well as the ongoing release of organic carbon and iron. Column experiments showed that materials E, F and G removed almost 100% of ortho-nitrochlorobenzene (o-NCB) from water. The rates of iron release from the E and F columns exceeded those from column G but this had no significant effect on o-NCB removal. The bacteria that degraded o-NCB in E and F were also different from those in G. The levels of these bacteria in the columns were higher than those in the initial materials, with the highest level in column E. The simultaneous reduction and microbial degradation of o-NCB was observed, with the latter being dominant. A kinetic model was established to simulate the dynamic interactions and accurately predicted the experimental results. Organic carbon from the wheat straw supported the majority of the biomass in each column, which was essential for the bioremediation process. The findings of this study suggest an economically viable approach to mitigating o-NCB pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuicui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Xiaohui Chen
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Steven A Banwart
- School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; Global Food and Environment Institute, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Wenchao Du
- School of the Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Ying Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hongyan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; Joint International Research Centre for Critical Zone Science-University of Leeds and Nanjing University, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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A review of treatment methods for insensitive high explosive contaminated wastewater. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07438. [PMID: 34401549 PMCID: PMC8353291 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Insensitive high explosive materials (IHE) such as 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) and 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) are increasingly being used in formulations of insensitive munitions alongside 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). Load, assembly and packing (LAP) facilities that process munitions produce wastewater contaminated with IHE which must be treated before discharge. Some facilities can produce as much as 90,000 L of contaminated wastewater per day. In this review, methods of wastewater treatment are assessed in terms of their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for their use in production of IHE munitions including their limitations and how they could be applied to industrial scale LAP facilities. Adsorption is identified as a suitable treatment method, however the high solubility of NTO, up to 16.6 g.L−1 which is 180 times higher that of TNT, has the potential to exceed the adsorptive capacity of carbon adsorption systems. The key properties of the adsorptive materials along the selection of adsorption models are highlighted and recommendations on how the limitations of carbon adsorption systems for IHE wastewater can be overcome are offered, including the modification of carbons to increase adsorptive capacity or reduce costs.
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Density functional theory investigation on the degradation mechanisms of 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) in water. Struct Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11224-021-01795-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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RoyChowdhury A, Mukherjee P, Panja S, Datta R, Christodoulatos C, Sarkar D. Evidence for Phytoremediation and Phytoexcretion of NTO from Industrial Wastewater by Vetiver Grass. Molecules 2020; 26:molecules26010074. [PMID: 33375266 PMCID: PMC7796298 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of insensitive munitions such as 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) is rapidly increasing and is expected to replace conventional munitions in the near future. Various NTO treatment technologies are being developed for the treatment of wastewater from industrial munition facilities. This is the first study to explore the potential phytoremediation of industrial NTO-wastewater using vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides L.). Here, we present evidence that vetiver can effectively remove NTO from wastewater, and also translocated NTO from root to shoot. NTO was phytotoxic and resulted in a loss of plant biomass and chlorophyll. The metabolomic analysis showed significant differences between treated and control samples, with the upregulation of specific pathways such as glycerophosphate metabolism and amino acid metabolism, providing a glimpse into the stress alleviation strategy of vetiver. One of the mechanisms of NTO stress reduction was the excretion of solid crystals. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis confirmed the presence of NTO crystals in the plant exudates. Further characterization of the exudates is in progress to ascertain the purity of these crystals, and if vetiver could be used for phytomining NTO from industrial wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek RoyChowdhury
- Environmental Science and Natural Resources Program, School of Science, Navajo Technical University, Crownpoint, NM 87313, USA;
| | - Pallabi Mukherjee
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Ocean Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (P.M.); (S.P.)
| | - Saumik Panja
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Ocean Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (P.M.); (S.P.)
| | - Rupali Datta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA;
| | | | - Dibyendu Sarkar
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Ocean Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (P.M.); (S.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-201-2168028
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Jog KV, Sierra-Alvarez R, Field JA. Rapid biotransformation of the insensitive munitions compound, 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO), by wastewater sludge. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 36:67. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-020-02843-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Ladyman MK, Temple TJ, Piperakis MM, Fawcett-Hirst W, Gutierrez-Carazo E, Coulon F. Decision Framework for the environmental management of explosive contaminated land. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 690:730-738. [PMID: 31302539 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The environmental risks from explosive manufacturing and testing activities are usually evaluated using a qualitative process such as environmental impact prioritisation as recommended by legislation and guidance. However, standard environmental management system (EMS) guidance rarely provides detailed information on how to objectively assess the significance of the environmental impacts based on a rational scientific evidence. Quantitative exposure and eco-toxicity assessments are frequently used in combination with environmental threshold limit guidelines, but these omit important environmental impacts such as physical damage to land, nuisance and contribution to climate change. These impacts are particularly relevant to the explosives industry where noise nuisance and physical damage are given high priority. In addition, contamination from explosive compositions may comprise mixtures of multiple legacy and new generation explosives such as 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane (RDX), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), 5-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-3-one (NTO), 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and nitroguandine (NQ), which may have combined impacts not captured by conventional eco-toxicity assessments. Further, threshold limits for energetic materials in soil and water have not been established for most nations. Additionally, in the explosive industry wider concerns such as legislative compliance and stakeholder concerns may help to provide a more broadly applicable assessment of environmental impact. Therefore in this study a novel decision framework was developed to integrate empirical data with business risks to enable rational decision making for the environmental management of explosive manufacturing facilities. The application of the framework was illustrated using three case studies from the explosive manufacturing industry to demonstrate how the framework can be used to justify environmental management decision making. By linking the environmental impacts to business risks, we demonstrate that manufacturers are able to assess a wide spectrum of issues that might not be identified in the initial environmental assessment such as non-toxic pollution incidents, breaches in legislation and stakeholder perceptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Ladyman
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK.
| | - T J Temple
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - M M Piperakis
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - W Fawcett-Hirst
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - E Gutierrez-Carazo
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - F Coulon
- Cranfield University, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
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Terracciano A, Ge J, Koutsospyros A, Meng X, Smolinski B, Arienti P. Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) reduction by granular zero-valent iron in continuous flow reactor. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:28489-28499. [PMID: 30088248 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-2871-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater streams containing hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) are subject to regulatory discharge regulations that require processing through industrial waste treatment. Thus, the development of easy-to-apply technologies for the treatment of RDX-laden wastewater streams is imperative. In the present study, the reduction of RDX by granular zero valent iron (GZVI) in batch and column experiments was investigated. Preliminary batch tests conducted under both oxic and anoxic conditions showed that after 3.0 h of reaction with GZVI, RDX was mainly converted to formaldehyde (CH2O), nitrate (NO3-), and ammonium (NH4+). Column filtration tests showed that pretreatment of the GZVI media with acid wash and low influent pH (4.0 ± 0.1) achieved 99% removal of RDX up to 5000 bed volume. BOD tests carried out on the post-treatment streams showed increased biodegradability of the treated wastewater, leading to a lower environmental impact for the final waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalia Terracciano
- Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, USA
| | - Jie Ge
- Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, USA
| | | | - Xiaoguang Meng
- Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, USA.
| | | | - Per Arienti
- US Army RDECOM-ARDEC, Picatinny, NJ, 07806-5000, USA
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Hadnagy E, Mai A, Smolinski B, Braida W, Koutsospyros A. Characterization of Mg-based bimetal treatment of insensitive munition 2,4-dinitroanisole. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:24403-24416. [PMID: 29909531 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-2493-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The manufacturing of insensitive munition 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) generates waste streams that require treatment. DNAN has been treated previously with zero-valent iron (ZVI) and Fe-based bimetals. Use of Mg-based bimetals offers certain advantages including potential higher reactivity and relative insensitivity to pH conditions. This work reports preliminary findings of DNAN degradation by three Mg-based bimetals: Mg/Cu, Mg/Ni, and Mg/Zn. Treatment of DNAN by all three bimetals is highly effective in aqueous solutions (> 89% removal) and wastewater (> 91% removal) in comparison with treatment solely with zero-valent magnesium (ZVMg; 35% removal). Investigation of reaction byproducts supports a partial degradation pathway involving reduction of the ortho or para nitro to amino group, leading to 2-amino-4-nitroanisole (2-ANAN) and 4-amino-2-nitroanisole (4-ANAN). Further reduction of the second nitro group leads to 2,4-diaminoanisole (DAAN). These byproducts are detected in small quantities in the aqueous phase. Carbon mass balance analysis suggests near-complete closure (91%) with 12.4 and 78.4% of the total organic carbon (TOC) distributed in the aqueous and mineral bimetal phases, respectively. Post-treatment surface mineral phase analysis indicates Mg(OH)2 as the main oxidized species; oxide formation does not appear to impair treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emese Hadnagy
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New Haven, West Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Andrew Mai
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Ocean Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, USA
| | | | - Washington Braida
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Ocean Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, USA
| | - Agamemnon Koutsospyros
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New Haven, West Haven, CT, USA
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UV-activated persulfate oxidation of the insensitive munitions compound 2,4-dinitroanisole in water: Kinetics, products, and influence of natural photoinducers. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2018.04.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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