Modulation of TGF-β-inducible hypermotility by EGF and other factors in human prostate epithelial cells and keratinocytes

Exploring TGF-β signaling in benign prostatic hyperplasia: from cellular senescence to fibrosis and therapeutic implications

As men get older, they often develop benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), an enlarged prostate that is not cancerous or dangerous. Although the etiology of BPH is unknown, increasing evidence indicates that the TGF-β signaling pathway might be a key player in its pathogenesis. TGF-β is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular matrix re-modeling, which are all dysregulated in BPH. Cellular senescence is primarily initiated by TGF-β--induced, irreversible growth arrest and usually limits the prostate gland's hyperplastic growth. Moreover, senescent cells generate a Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype (SASP), which consists of numerous proinflammatory and profibrotic factors that can worsen disease ontogeny. In addition, TGF-β is among the most fibrogenic factors. At the same time, fibrosis involves a massive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins, which can increase tissue stiffness and a loss of normal organ functions. TGF-β-mediated fibrosis in BPH changes the mechanical properties of the prostate and surrounding tissues to contribute to lower urinary tract symptoms. This review discusses the complicated molecular signaling of TGF-β underlying changes in cellular senescence and fibrosis during BPH concerning its therapeutic potential.

PRMT1 Inhibition Selectively Targets BNC1-Dependent Proliferation, but not Migration in Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) develops in stratified epithelial tissues and demonstrates frequent alterations in transcriptional regulators. We sought to discover SCC-specific transcriptional programs and identified the transcription factor Basonuclin 1 (BNC1) as highly expressed in SCC compared to other tumor types. RNA-seq and ChIP-seq analysis identified pro-proliferative genes activated by BNC1 in SCC cells and keratinocytes. Inhibition of BNC1 in SCC cells suppressed proliferation and increased migration via FRA1. In contrast, BNC1 reduction in keratinocytes caused differentiation, which was abrogated by IRF6 knockdown, leading to increased migration. Protein interactome analysis identified PRMT1 as a co-activator of BNC1-dependent proliferative genes. Inhibition of PRMT1 resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in SCC cell proliferation without increasing migration. Importantly, therapeutic inhibition of PRMT1 in SCC xenografts significantly reduced tumor size, resembling functional effects of BNC1 knockdown. Together, we identify BNC1-PRMT1 as an SCC-lineage specific transcriptional axis that promotes cancer growth, which can be therapeutically targeted to inhibit SCC tumorigenesis.

Human papillomavirus E6 triggers upregulation of the antiviral and cancer genomic DNA deaminase APOBEC3B

Several recent studies have converged upon the innate immune DNA cytosine deaminase APOBEC3B (A3B) as a significant source of genomic uracil lesions and mutagenesis in multiple human cancers, including those of the breast, head/neck, cervix, bladder, lung, ovary, and other tissues. A3B is upregulated in these tumor types relative to normal tissues, but the mechanism is unclear. Because A3B also has antiviral activity in multiple systems and is a member of the broader innate immune response, we tested the hypothesis that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection causes A3B upregulation. We found that A3B mRNA expression and enzymatic activity were upregulated following transfection of a high-risk HPV genome and that this effect was abrogated by inactivation of E6. Transduction experiments showed that the E6 oncoprotein alone was sufficient to cause A3B upregulation, and a panel of high-risk E6 proteins triggered higher A3B levels than did a panel of low-risk or noncancer E6 proteins. Knockdown experiments in HPV-positive cell lines showed that endogenous E6 is required for A3B upregulation. Analyses of publicly available head/neck cancer data further support this relationship, as A3B levels are higher in HPV-positive cancers than in HPV-negative cancers. Taken together with the established role for high-risk E6 in functional inactivation of TP53 and published positive correlations in breast cancer between A3B upregulation and genetic inactivation of TP53, our studies suggest a model in which high-risk HPV E6, possibly through functional inactivation of TP53, causes derepression of A3B gene transcription. This would lead to a mutator phenotype that explains the observed cytosine mutation biases in HPV-positive head/neck and cervical cancers.

The innate immune DNA cytosine deaminase APOBEC3B (A3B) accounts for a large proportion of somatic mutations in cervical and head/neck cancers, but nothing is known about the mechanism responsible for its upregulation in these tumor types. Almost all cervical carcinomas and large proportions of head/neck tumors are caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Here, we establish a mechanistic link between HPV infection and A3B upregulation. The E6 oncoprotein of high-risk, but not low-risk, HPV types triggers A3B upregulation, supporting a model in which TP53 inactivation causes a derepression of A3B gene transcription and elevated A3B enzyme levels. This virus-induced mutator phenotype provides a mechanistic explanation for A3B signature mutations observed in HPV-positive head/neck and cervical carcinomas and may also help to account for the preferential cancer predisposition caused by high-risk HPV isolates.

Genus beta human papillomavirus E6 proteins vary in their effects on the transactivation of p53 target genes

The genus beta human papillomaviruses (beta HPVs) cause cutaneous lesions and are thought to be involved in the initiation of some nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSCs), particularly in patients with the genetic disorder epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV). We have previously reported that at least two of the genus beta HPV E6 proteins bind to and/or increase the steady-state levels of p53 in squamous epithelial cells. This is in contrast to a well-characterized ability of the E6 proteins of cancer-associated HPVs of genus alpha HPV, which inactivate p53 by targeting its ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. In this study, we have investigated the ability of genus beta E6 proteins from eight different HPV types to block the transactivation of p53 target genes following DNA damage. We find that the E6 proteins from diverse beta HPV species and types vary in their capacity to block the induction of MDM2, p21, and proapoptotic genes after genotoxic stress. We conclude that some genus beta HPV E6 proteins inhibit at least some p53 target genes, although perhaps not by the same mechanism or to the same degree as the high-risk genus alpha HPV E6 proteins.

IMPORTANCE

This study addresses the ability of various human papillomavirus E6 proteins to block the activation of p53-responsive cellular genes following DNA damage in human keratinocytes, the normal host cell for HPVs. The E6 proteins encoded by the high-risk, cancer-associated HPV types of genus alpha HPV have a well-established activity to target p53 degradation and thereby inhibit the response to DNA damage. In this study, we have investigated the ability of genus beta HPV E6 proteins from eight different HPV types to block the ability of p53 to transactivate downstream genes following DNA damage. We find that some, but not all, genus beta HPV E6 proteins can block the transactivation of some p53 target genes. This differential response to DNA damage furthers the understanding of cutaneous HPV biology and may help to explain the potential connection between some beta HPVs and cancer.

MAPK/ERK-dependent translation factor hyperactivation and dysregulated laminin γ2 expression in oral dysplasia and squamous cell carcinoma

Lesions displaying a variety of dysplastic changes precede invasive oral and epidermal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC); however, there are no histopathological criteria for either confirming or staging premalignancy. SCCs and dysplasias frequently contain cells that abnormally express the γ2 subunit of laminin-332. We developed cell culture models to investigate γ2 dysregulation. Normal human keratinocytes displayed density-dependent repression of γ2, whereas premalignant keratinocytes and SCC cells overexpressed γ2 and secreted laminin assembly intermediates. Neoplastic cells had hyperactive EGFR/MAPK(ERK) signaling coordinate with overexpressed γ2, and EGFR and MEK inhibitors normalized γ2 expression. Keratinocytes engineered to express HPV16 E6 or activated mutant HRAS, cRAF1, or MEK1 lost density repression of γ2 and shared with neoplastic cells signaling abnormalities downstream of ERK, including increased phosphorylation of S6 and eIF4 translation factors. Notably, qPCR results revealed that γ2 overexpression was not accompanied by increased γ2 mRNA levels, consistent with ERK-dependent, eIF4B-mediated translation initiation of the stem-looped, 5'-untranslated region of γ2 mRNA in neoplastic cells. Inhibitors of MEK, but not of TORC1/2, blocked S6 and eIF4B phosphorylation and γ2 overexpression. Immunostaining of oral dysplasias identified γ2 overexpression occurring within fields of basal cells that had elevated p-S6 levels. These results reveal a causal relationship between ERK-dependent translation factor activation and laminin γ2 dysregulation and identify new markers of preinvasive neoplastic change during progression to SCC.

The relationship between fibrogenic TGFβ1 signaling in the joint and cartilage degradation in post-injury osteoarthritis

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature on modulation of chondrocyte activities in the osteoarthritic joint, and to discuss these changes in relation to established hard and soft tissue repair paradigms, with an emphasis on transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ1)-mediated signaling which can promote either a chondrogenic or fibrogenic phenotype.

METHODS

Papers addressing the close relationship between repair in general, and the specific post-injury response of joint tissues are summarized. Different interpretations of the role of TGFβ1 in the emergence of an "osteoarthritic" chondrocyte are compared and the phenotypic plasticity of "reparative" progenitor cells is examined. Lastly, emerging data on a central role for A-Disintegrin-And-Metalloproteinase-with-Thrombospondin-like-Sequences-5 (ADAMTS5) activity in modulating TGFβ1 signaling through activin receptor-like kinase 1 (ALK1) and activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5) pathways is discussed.

RESULTS

The review illustrates how a transition from ALK5-mediated fibrogenic signaling to ALK1-mediated chondrogenic signaling in joint cells represents the critical transition from a non-reparative to a reparative cell phenotype. Data from cell and in vivo studies illustrates the mechanism by which ablation of ADAMTS5 activity allows the transition to reparative chondrogenesis. Multiple large gene expression studies of normal and osteoarthritis (OA) human cartilages (CAs) also support an important role for TGFβ1-mediated pro-fibrogenic activities during disease progression.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that progressive articular CA damage in post-injury OA results primarily from biomechanical, cell biologic and mediator changes that promote a fibroblastic phenotype in joint cells. Since ADAMTS5 and TGFβ1 appear to control this process, agents which interfere with their activities may not only enhance endogenous CA repair in vivo, but also improve the properties of tissue-engineered CA for implantation.