Monitored anesthesia care with propofol versus surgeon-monitored sedation with benzodiazepines and narcotics for preoperative endoscopy in the morbidly obese

Nasal continuous positive pressure versus simple face mask oxygenation for adult obese and obstructive sleep apnea patients undergoing colonoscopy under propofol-based general anesthesia without tracheal intubation: A randomized controlled trial

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To determine if a nasal positive airway pressure (nasal CPAP) mask would decrease the number of hypoxemic events in obese and obstructive sleep apnea patients undergoing colonoscopy.

DESIGN

Single-center prospective randomized controlled trial.

SETTING

Tertiary academic center.

PATIENTS

We enrolled 109 patients with diagnosis of obesity and/or obstructive sleep apnea scheduled to undergo colonoscopy under propofol general anesthesia without planned tracheal intubation.

INTERVENTION

Patients were randomly allocated (1:1 ratio) to receive supplementary oxygen at a flow of 10 L/min, either through a nasal CPAP or a simple facemask.

MEASUREMENTS

The primary endpoint was the difference in the mean percentage of time spent with oxygen saturation below 90% between the two groups. Secondary outcomes included the need for airway maneuvers/interventions, average SpO2 during the case, duration and severity of oxygen desaturation, incidence and duration of procedural interruptions, and satisfaction and tolerance scores.

MAIN RESULTS

54 were allocated to the simple face mask and 55 to the nasal CPAP mask arms, respectively. A total of 6 patients experienced a hypoxemic event. Among these patients, the difference in the percentage of time spent with oxygen saturation below 90% was not clinically relevant (p = 1.0). However, patients in the nasal CPAP group required less chin lift (20% vs. 42.6%; p = 0.01) and oral cannula insertion (12.7% vs.29.6%; p = 0.03). The percentage of patients with at least one airway maneuver was higher in the simple face mask arm (68.5% vs. 41.8%; p = 0.005). Patient tolerance to device score was lower in the nasal CPAP group (8.85 vs. 9.56; p = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

A nasal CPAP did not prevent hypoxemia and should not be used routinely for colonoscopy in obese or OSA patients if a simple face mask is an alternative therapy. However, potential advantages of its use include fewer airway maneuvers or interventions, which may be desirable in certain clinical settings.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov, identifier: NCT05175573.

Patient characteristics and procedural outcomes of moderate sedation for endoscopic procedures in patients with obesity: A retrospective, propensity score-matched study

Background  Endoscopic procedures are performed commonly with moderate sedation. Obesity can pose a challenge in its safe administration. This study was aimed at assessing outcomes of endoscopy procedures performed with moderate sedation in obese patients. Patients and methods  This was a retrospective study of patients undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) and/or colonoscopy with moderate sedation from July 17, 2017 to December 31, 2019. Demographics, comorbidities, outpatient medications and procedure-related outcomes (procedure time, recovery time, cardiopulmonary adverse events, 7-day post-procedure hospitalization, cecal intubation time, withdrawal time, tolerance of moderate sedation and sedation medications administered) were compared for patient with and without obesity after propensity score matching. Standard statistical methods were used for analysis. Results  A total of 7601 procedures were performed with moderate sedation for 5746 patients. Propensity score matching identified 1360 and 1740 pairs of EGDs and colonoscopies with moderate sedation for patients with and without obesity. Recovery time was found to be shorter for obese patients undergoing EGD (OR: 0.989, 95 % CI: 0.981-.998; P  = 0.01). Obese patients did not differ from non-obese patients in any other procedure-related outcomes for EGDs or colonoscopies. Conclusions  Outcomes for endoscopy procedures performed with moderate sedation were noted to be similar between obese and non-obese patients. These findings suggest that moderate sedation can be used safely for endoscopic procedures in patients with obesity.

Perioperative care of obstructive sleep apnea patients: A survey of European anesthesiologists

Background:

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is prevalent in the surgical patient population and is associated with high risk of perioperative complications. There are limited guidelines and wide practice variations regarding the perioperative care of obese and OSA patients. This is a study of European anesthesiologists' clinical practice of perioperative care of OSA patients.

Methods:

This survey evaluated United Kingdom anesthesiologists' clinical practice of the perioperative care of OSA patients. Outcomes and variables were compared between 4100 anesthesiologists of different clinical experience and hospital settings.

Results:

Approximately 45% of respondents manage OSA patients rarely, 42% occasionally, and 13% regularly. Most respondents order OSA screening tests if patients have tonsillar hypertrophy, head/neck tumor, BMI >35, increased neck circumference, craniofacial anomaly, and right-sided electrocardiography (ECG) anomaly. Majority request preoperative polysomnography, ECG, overnight pulse oximetry, and arterial blood gas analysis. Majority recommend preoperative weight loss, optimisation, smoking cessation, reduction of substance use, and regular mask-CPAP use. Majority consider endoscopy, and ophthalmology as appropriate day case procedures, but not laparoscopy. Majority postpone elective airway, laparoscopic, laparotomy, and head/neck surgery; if patients are not optimized preoperatively. For major surgery, combined general + neuraxial anesthesia was ranked as 3^rd option. For major limb surgery, neuraxial anesthesia without sedation was ranked as 1^st option, nerve block without sedation was ranked 2^nd, and general anesthesia + nerve block was ranked 3^rd or 4^th. At anesthesia emergence, majority ensure that patients have normal consciousness, respiration and neuromuscular function. Majority ensure postoperative oximetry, telemetry, and oxygen supplementation.

Conclusion:

This study highlights variations in anesthesiologists' perioperative care of OSA patients; even in developed countries with advanced medical training and standards. The study outcomes will improve perioperative care of OSA patients.

Safety and Efficacy of Moderate Sedation in Super Obese Patients Undergoing Lower and Upper GI Endoscopy: a Case-Control Study

PURPOSE

Obesity is a disease of increasing prevalence. There is minimal research on the safety of sedation for general endoscopic procedures among super obese patients (BMI ≥ 50). The aim of our study was to evaluate the safety of moderate sedation and endoscopic procedural outcomes for super obese patients in a case-control study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We completed an age and sex-matched case-control study comparing 132 super obese patients with 132 non-obese controls. We assessed intra-procedure adverse events, delayed adverse events, doses of sedation medication used, and procedure duration at a tertiary care setting.

RESULTS

The mean BMI for the obese cohort was 55.6 compared with 22.5 for the controls (P < 0.001). The mean intra-procedure fentanyl and midazolam dose was higher for the obese patients compared with the controls, fentanyl 180 mcg, midazolam 7.7 mg vs fentanyl 148 mcg, midazolam 6.4 mg, respectively (P < 0.001). There was a significantly higher percentage of brief intra-procedure hypoxia (oxygen blood saturation < 90%) for the obese patients compared with the controls, 5% vs 0% (P = 0.02). There was no difference in delayed adverse events with 2% of the cases and 2% of the controls having delayed adverse events (P = 1.0). Procedure completion rates were 100% for both cases and controls.

CONCLUSION

General endoscopic procedures can be safely and effectively performed in super obese patients with moderate sedation. Brief intra-procedure hypoxia more commonly occurs in super obese patients, and higher medication doses are required.

Society of Anesthesia and Sleep Medicine Guideline on Intraoperative Management of Adult Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea

The purpose of the Society of Anesthesia and Sleep Medicine Guideline on Intraoperative Management of Adult Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is to present recommendations based on current scientific evidence. This guideline seeks to address questions regarding the intraoperative care of patients with OSA, including airway management, anesthetic drug and agent effects, and choice of anesthesia type. Given the paucity of high-quality studies with regard to study design and execution in this perioperative field, recommendations were to a large part developed by subject-matter experts through consensus processes, taking into account the current scientific knowledge base and quality of evidence. This guideline may not be suitable for all clinical settings and patients and is not intended to define standards of care or absolute requirements for patient care; thus, assessment of appropriateness should be made on an individualized basis. Adherence to this guideline cannot guarantee successful outcomes, but recommendations should rather aid health care professionals and institutions to formulate plans and develop protocols for the improvement of the perioperative care of patients with OSA, considering patient-related factors, interventions, and resource availability. Given the groundwork of a comprehensive systematic literature review, these recommendations reflect the current state of knowledge and its interpretation by a group of experts at the time of publication. While periodic reevaluations of literature are needed, novel scientific evidence between updates should be taken into account. Deviations in practice from the guideline may be justifiable and should not be interpreted as a basis for claims of negligence.

Is Preoperative Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy in Obese Patients Undergoing Bariatric Surgery Mandatory? An Asian Perspective

BACKGROUND

The role of routine preoperative oesopha gogastroduodenoscopy (OGD) for all bariatric surgery candidates is controversial. We aim to investigate the prevalence of clinically significant OGD findings in a primarily Chinese obese population and identify factors that predict a normal screening OGD.

METHODS

Medical records of patients who underwent primary bariatric surgery in our centre from August 2002 to December 2014 were reviewed. OGD findings were classified into two groups: group 1 consisted of normal findings and abnormal findings that would not alter the surgical plan; group 2 consisted of lesions that might delay or alter the surgical procedure.

RESULTS

We identified 268 patients (169 female), of mean age 39.1 ± 10.8 years, mean baseline body weight 108.7 ± 6.1 kg and mean body mass index (BMI) 40.3 ± 6.1 kg/m² for analysis. Overall prevalence of abnormal OGD findings was 51.1 %, which included gastritis (32.5 %), hiatus hernia (17.9 %), duodenitis (8.6 %) and erosive oesophagitis (7.5 %); 27.2 % had group 2 lesions. Univariate analysis revealed older age (p = 0.016), use of NSAIDs (p = 0.004) and presence of reflux symptoms (p = 0.029) as significant risk factors of group 2 lesions. On multivariate analysis, use of NSAIDs (p = 0.015) and reflux symptoms (p = 0.039) remained significant predictive factors. In the low-risk subgroup (40 years and younger, without reflux symptoms or use of NSAIDs), the prevalence of group 2 abnormalities was 18.9 %.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant endoscopic abnormalities are common among obese Chinese patients which may delay or change the surgical plan. The negative predictive value in low-risk patients was not strong. We therefore recommend routine preoperative endoscopy for all patients.

Sedation Challenges: Obesity and Sleep Apnea

This article reviews the data for diagnostic and uncomplicated therapeutic upper endoscopy, which show it is safe and effective to perform the procedure under moderate sedation with a combination of benzodiazepine and opioids. For more complex procedures or for superobese patients anesthesia support is recommended. Performing endoscopy in this population should alert providers to plan carefully and individualize sedation plans because there is no objective way to quantify this risk pre-endoscopically.

Conscious sedation for upper endoscopy in the gastric bypass patient: prevalence of cardiopulmonary adverse events and predictors of sedation requirement

BACKGROUND

Safety of conscious sedation for performing esophagoduodenoscopy (EGD) in obese and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) patients remains controversial. Additionally, it has been suggested that patients with higher body mass index (BMI) require higher sedation doses, imparting greater risk.

AIM

The aim of this study is to assess the prevalence of sedation-related adverse events and the independent predictors of sedation requirements in RYGB patients.

METHODS

This study is a retrospective database review of RYGB patients who underwent EGD under conscious sedation. Database analysis was performed and linear regression applied to identify significant predictors of sedation requirement. Primary outcomes are sedation-related adverse events and predictors of sedation requirement.

RESULTS

Data on 1,385 consecutive procedures (diagnostic 967; therapeutic 418) performed under conscious sedation were analyzed. Unplanned events were reported in 1.6 %, with 0.6 % being cardiopulmonary in nature and 0.7 % requiring early termination. Multivariable linear regression revealed procedural time was the only significant predictor of fentanyl (standardized β 0.34; P value < 0.001) and midazolam (standardized β 0.30; P value < 0.001) doses. Post-RYGB BMI was not significantly associated with the dose of fentanyl (standardized β 0.08; P value 0.29) or midazolam administered (standardized β 0.01; P value 0.88).

CONCLUSIONS

Upper endoscopy can be safely performed in RYGB patients under conscious sedation with a similar cardiopulmonary risk profile to that of standard EGD. The non-cardiopulmonary adverse events were procedure-specific and unrelated to sedation. Procedure length, and not absolute BMI, was the only predictor of sedation requirement in this patient population.

Midazolam for painless gastrointestinal endoscopy in obese patients

AIM: To assess the efficacy and safety of different doses of midazolam for gastrointestinal endoscopy in obese patients.

METHODS: One hundred and twenty-six patients who underwent painless gastroscopy were randomly divided into four groups: A, B, C and D. Groups A, B, and C were intravenously given 0.01, 0.02, and 0.03 mg/kg of midazolam before the examination, respectively, while group D was not given midazolam. All patients were intravenously given fentanyl 1 μg/kg and propofol 1.0-2.0 mg/kg 3 min later. If the patient had somatic reaction, an additional propofol 0.3-0.5 mg/kg was given. The blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), SpO₂, the initial and total doses of propofol, side effects, as well as the patient's and doctor's satisfaction were recorded.

RESULTS: The initial dose of propofol in groups A, B and C (95.62 mg ± 16.59 mg, 87.50 mg ± 13.81 mg, 79.09 mg ± 16.74 mg) were significantly less than that in group D (126.67 mg ± 20.48 mg) (P < 0.05 for all), while the total dose of propofol were less in groups B and C than in group D (P < 0.05 for both), but had no statistical difference between groups A and D. The rates of hyoxemia and assisted ventilation in groups A, B and C (3.03%, 3.33%, 12.12%) were lower than that in group D (26.67%) (P < 0.05 for all), but the incidence of dizziness and sleepiness in group C (51.51%) was significantly higher than those in ther groups (P < 0.05 for all).

CONCLUSION: In obese patients, application of midazolam in painless gastrointestinal endoscopy is simple, safe and effective.

Sedation in gastrointestinal endoscopy: current issues

Diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopy can successfully be performed by applying moderate (conscious) sedation. Moderate sedation, using midazolam and an opioid, is the standard method of sedation, although propofol is increasingly being used in many countries because the satisfaction of endoscopists with propofol sedation is greater compared with their satisfaction with conventional sedation. Moreover, the use of propofol is currently preferred for the endoscopic sedation of patients with advanced liver disease due to its short biologic half-life and, consequently, its low risk of inducing hepatic encephalopathy. In the future, propofol could become the preferred sedation agent, especially for routine colonoscopy. Midazolam is the benzodiazepine of choice because of its shorter duration of action and better pharmacokinetic profile compared with diazepam. Among opioids, pethidine and fentanyl are the most popular. A number of other substances have been tested in several clinical trials with promising results. Among them, newer opioids, such as remifentanil, enable a faster recovery. The controversy regarding the administration of sedation by an endoscopist or an experienced nurse, as well as the optimal staffing of endoscopy units, continues to be a matter of discussion. Safe sedation in special clinical circumstances, such as in the cases of obese, pregnant, and elderly individuals, as well as patients with chronic lung, renal or liver disease, requires modification of the dose of the drugs used for sedation. In the great majority of patients, sedation under the supervision of a properly trained endoscopist remains the standard practice worldwide. In this review, an overview of the current knowledge concerning sedation during digestive endoscopy will be provided based on the data in the current literature.

Safety of conscious sedation in patients with sleep apnea in a veteran population

OBJECTIVES

Due to the presumed higher risk of cardiopulmonary complications in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), many endoscopy centers consider OSA a contraindication to using conscious sedation. We evaluated the safety of conscious sedation during endoscopy for patients with OSA in a veteran population, and compared this to patients without OSA.

METHODS

Polysomnography studies were reviewed from 2004 to 2009 to identify 200 patients with OSA who had undergone endoscopy. Controls included the last 200 consecutive endoscopies in this institution for patients without OSA. Sixty-three upper endoscopies, 136 colonoscopies, and one enteroscopy were included in the OSA group. Sixty-five upper endoscopies, 133 colonoscopies, one sigmoidoscopy, and one endoscopic ultrasound comprised the control group. Data obtained included demographics, medications prescribed, and any complication noted in the procedure report.

RESULTS

No complications occurred in the control group. In the OSA group, a patient experienced oxygen desaturation during an upper endoscopy and required oxygen supplementation. The procedure was completed and did not require an extended stay in the endoscopy suite.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that endoscopy can be safely done in OSA patients using conscious sedation, and the complication rate is not significantly different than patients without OSA.

Sedation in the bariatric patient

Obesity is a significant health problem that has assumed epidemic proportions. A durable reduction in weight and improved morbidity and mortality have been realized with the introduction of various bariatric surgical procedures. It is unknown how safe the current practices of sedation for endoscopic procedures are in bariatric patients. Morbid obesity can result in pulmonary hypertension, obstructive sleep apnea, and restrictive lung disease. This article explores these issues and how they may impact the risk profile of current standards for endoscopic sedation.

Preoperative gastrointestinal assessment before bariatric surgery

Obesity is a major health problem throughout the world. Bariatric surgery is frequently considered among the treatment options for the severely overweight, and surgically induced weight loss has become the best treatment for many morbidly obese people. A preoperative assessment to evaluate the suitability of a patient for a given operation and to clarify factors that may affect the outcome of a planned procedure should be carried out before the surgery. Preoperative evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract by a gastroenterologist before bariatric surgery yields important information that can lead to changes in planned treatments. This article discusses the factors that a gastroenterologist should assess before the surgery.

Procedural sedation and obesity: waters left uncharted

BACKGROUND

Moderate sedation during endoscopy may pose increased risks among obese patients.

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature that considers aspects of sedation within the obese population and to identify gaps in our knowledge.

DESIGN

Literature-based review.

RESULTS

There may be increased risks among obese patients undergoing moderate sedation. In particular, the presence of obstructive sleep apnea may identify a subset of patients at higher risk for complications.

LIMITATIONS

English language literature only.

CONCLUSIONS

Although obesity may be associated with increased risks of procedural sedation, future studies should better clarify such risks to better inform clinical decision making.