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Macwan N, Patel HS, Sharma RK, Jain N, Tandel H. Optimization of Lurasidone HCl-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles for Intramuscular Delivery: Enhanced Bioavailability, Reduced Dosing Frequency, Pharmacokinetics, and Therapeutic Outcomes. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2024; 22:53-62. [PMID: 38150562 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2023.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to develop a nanoparticle drug delivery system using poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of lurasidone hydrochloride (LH) in treatment of schizophrenia through intramuscular injection. LH-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (LH-PNPs) were prepared using the nanoprecipitation technique and their physicochemical characteristics were assessed. Particle size (PS), zeta potential, morphology, % encapsulation efficiency, % drug loading, drug content, and solid-state properties were analyzed. Stability, in vitro release, and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies were conducted to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of the developed LH-PNPs. The optimized batch of LH-PNPs exhibited a narrow and uniform PS distribution before and after lyophilization, with sizes of 112.7 ± 1.8 nm and 115.0 ± 1.3 nm, respectively, and a low polydispersity index. The PNPs showed high drug entrapment efficiency, drug loading, and drug content uniformity. Solid-state characterization indicated good stability and compatibility, with a nonamorphous state. The drug release profile demonstrated sustained release behavior. Intramuscular administration of LH-PNPs in rats resulted in a significantly prolonged mean residence time compared with the drug suspension. These findings highlight that intramuscular delivery of the LH-PNP formulation is a promising approach for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of LH in treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikita Macwan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Hemil S Patel
- Department of Chemistry, Shrimad Rajchandra Vidyapeeth, Dharampur, Gujarat, India
| | - Rakesh K Sharma
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Nihali Jain
- School of Pharmacy, ITM (SLS) Baroda University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Hemal Tandel
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
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Mahajan H, Patel HS, Ray D, Aswal VK, Sharma RK, Tandel H. Mixed Pluronic/lecithin micelles formulation for oral bioavailability of candesartan cilexetil drug: in vitro characterization and in vivo pharmacokinetic investigations. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2024; 50:23-35. [PMID: 38079333 DOI: 10.1080/03639045.2023.2293122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to develop a mixed polymeric micelle formulation incorporating candesartan cilexetil (CAND) drug to enhance its oral bioavailability for the better treatment of hypertension. METHODS A Box-Behnken design was utilized to optimize the CAND-incorporated mixed polymeric micelles formulation (CAND-PFLC) consisting of Pluronics (P123 and F68) and lecithin (LC). The optimized CAND-PFLC micelles formulation was characterized for size, shape, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency (%EE). An in vitro release study, ex vivo permeability investigation, and an in vivo pharmacokinetic analysis were carried out to evaluate the performance of the formulation. RESULTS The optimized CAND-PFLC micelles formulation demonstrated a spherical shape, a particle size of 44 ± 2.03 nm, a zeta potential of -7.07 ± 1.39 mV, a PDI of 0.326 ± 0.06, and an entrapment efficiency of 87 ± 3.12%. The formulation exhibited excellent compatibility, better stability, and a noncrystalline nature. An in vitro release study revealed a faster drug release of 7.98% at gastric pH in 2 hrs and 94.45% at intestinal pH within 24 hrs. The ex vivo investigation demonstrated a significantly enhanced permeability of CAND, with 94.86% in the micelle formulation compared to 9.03% of the pure drug. In vivo pharmacokinetic analysis showed a 4.11-fold increase in oral bioavailability of CAND compared to the marketed formulation. CONCLUSION The CAND-PFLC mixed micelle formulation demonstrated improved performance compared to pure CAND, indicating its potential as a promising oral drug delivery system for the effective treatment of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Homraj Mahajan
- Deartment of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Hemil S Patel
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Debes Ray
- Solid State Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Vinod K Aswal
- Solid State Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Rakesh K Sharma
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Hemal Tandel
- Deartment of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
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Patel HS, Vyas BA, Tripathi S, Sharma RK. Design, Development, and Evaluation of SA-F127:TPGS Polymeric Mixed Micelles for Improved Delivery of Glipizide Drug: In-vitro, Ex-vivo, and In-vivo Investigations. AAPS PharmSciTech 2023; 24:213. [PMID: 37848728 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-023-02659-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The anti-diabetic glipizide (GLN) drug has notable pharmaceutical advantages, but poor aqueous solubility restricts its wide applications. The present work was to develop a mixed polymeric micelle system composed of SA-F127 and TPGS to improve the water solubility and effective delivery of the GLN. First, we synthesized SA-F127 and confirmed it through FTIR, NMR, and GPC techniques. The GLN-PMM were fabricated with the thin-film technique and optimized with CCD design. The developed GLN-PMM was characterized using DLS, Zeta, TEM, Rheology, FTIR, DSC, and XRD measurements. The GLN-PMM manifested a spherical morphology with 67.86 nm particle size, a -3.85 mV zeta potential, and a 0.582±0.06 PDI value. The polymeric mixed micelles showed excellent compatibility with GLN and were amorphous in nature. NMR studies confirmed the encapsulation of GLN in the core of the mixed micelle. In addition, the GLN-PMM micelles were tested in vitro for cumulative drug release, ex vivo for permeation, and in vivo for anti-diabetic investigations. The GLN-PMM release profile in the various pH environments showed over 90% after 24 h, clearly indicating sustained release. The GLN-PMM micelles gave higher 88.86±3.39% GLN permeation from the goat intestine compared with free GLN. In-vivo anti-diabetic investigation proves the powerful anti-diabetic properties of GLN-PMM in comparison to the marketed formulation. These findings demonstrated that the polymeric mixed micelles of SA-F127 and TPGS could be a promising, effective, and environment-friendly approach for oral delivery of the GLN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemil S Patel
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, 390001, Gujarat, India
| | - Bhavin A Vyas
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy Practice, Maliba Pharmacy College, Uka Tarsadia University, Bardoli, 394350, Gujarat, India
| | - Subhash Tripathi
- Department of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura, 281406, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rakesh K Sharma
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, 390001, Gujarat, India.
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Tomou EM, Papakyriakopoulou P, Saitani EM, Valsami G, Pippa N, Skaltsa H. Recent Advances in Nanoformulations for Quercetin Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1656. [PMID: 37376104 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Quercetin (QUE) is a flavonol that has recently received great attention from the research community due to its important pharmacological properties. However, QUE's low solubility and extended first-pass metabolism limit its oral administration. This review aims to present the potential of various nanoformulations in the development of QUE dosage forms for bioavailability enhancement. Advanced drug delivery nanosystems can be used for more efficient encapsulation, targeting, and controlled release of QUE. An overview of the primary nanosystem categories, formulation processes, and characterization techniques are described. In particular, lipid-based nanocarriers, such as liposomes, nanostructured-lipid carries, and solid-lipid nanoparticles, are widely used to improve QUE's oral absorption and targeting, increase its antioxidant activity, and ensure sustained release. Moreover, polymer-based nanocarriers exhibit unique properties for the improvement of the Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicology (ADME(T)) profile. Namely, micelles and hydrogels composed of natural or synthetic polymers have been applied in QUE formulations. Furthermore, cyclodextrin, niosomes, and nanoemulsions are proposed as formulation alternatives for administration via different routes. This comprehensive review provides insight into the role of advanced drug delivery nanosystems for the formulation and delivery of QUE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina-Michaela Tomou
- Section of Pharmacognosy & Chemistry of Natural Products, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Paraskevi Papakyriakopoulou
- Section of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Elmina-Marina Saitani
- Section of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Georgia Valsami
- Section of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Natassa Pippa
- Section of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
| | - Helen Skaltsa
- Section of Pharmacognosy & Chemistry of Natural Products, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
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Patel HS, Kunjadiya A, Rahdar A, Sharma RK. Pluronic-phosphatidylcholine mixed polymeric nanomicellar formulation for curcumin drug bioavailability: Design, fabrication, characterization and in vitro bioinvestigations. J BIOACT COMPAT POL 2023. [DOI: 10.1177/08839115231157098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/20/2023]
Abstract
Curcumin (CUR), obtained from turmeric, has biological advantages, but low aqueous solubility restricts its pharmaceutical applications. In the present work, a mixed polymeric nanomicellar formulation composed of bioactive Pluronic P123, Pluronic F68, and biocompatible phosphatidylcholine (PC) was designed and examined as the nanovehicles for overcoming the major barriers of poor bioavailability related to CUR. The CUR-incorporated P123/F68/PC mixed nanomicellar formulation (CUR-PFPC) was fabricated by the thin film technique and investigated in vitro. The fabrication of CUR-PFPC was optimized through D-optimal design. CUR-PFPC morphology, size distribution, zeta potential, drug encapsulating and incorporation efficiency, compatibility, and crystallinity were characterized using DLS, TEM, FTIR, XRD, and DSC analysis. Moreover, the cumulative drug release, antioxidant assays, and antimicrobial properties of formulations were also examined. The CUR-PFPC formulation exhibited a micellar size of 67.43 nm, a zeta potential of −15.1 mV, a PDI of 0.528, and a spherical shape. The mixed micellar formulation showed excellent compatibility and stability. The in vitro release profile of the CUR-PFPC reached over 60% in comparison to the 95% release of CUR, indicating a slow and sustained release. The DPPH assay showed that the CUR-PFPC had 96% antioxidant activity. Results show that the CUR-PFPC has powerful antibacterial and antifungal properties, which separates it from the free CUR. These findings suggest that the fabricated CUR-PFPC mixed polymeric nanomicellar formulation is thermodynamically and kinetically stable and may be considered a novel nanovehicle for hydrophobic antimicrobial drugs like CUR. Graphical Abstract [Formula: see text]
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemil S Patel
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Anju Kunjadiya
- Indukaka Ipcowala Center for Interdisciplinary Studies in Science and Technology, Sardar Patel University, Anand, Gujarat, India
| | - Abbas Rahdar
- Department of Physics, University of Zabol, Zabol, Sistan and Baluchestan, Iran
| | - Rakesh K Sharma
- Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
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Elmowafy M, Alruwaili NK, Ahmad N, Kassem AM, Ibrahim MF. Quercetin-Loaded Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle-Based Lyophilized Tablets for Enhanced Physicochemical Features and Dissolution Rate: Formulation, Optimization, and In Vitro Evaluation. AAPS PharmSciTech 2022; 24:6. [PMID: 36447021 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-022-02464-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) have been proposed as a potential approach for stabilizing the amorphous state of poorly water-soluble actives. This study aimed to improve the physiochemical characteristics of poorly water-soluble quercetin (QT) through a novel lyophilized formulation. Various parameters, including solvent polarity, QT-carrier mass ratio, and adsorption time, were studied to improve the loading of QT into MSNPs. The optimized loaded MSNPs were formulated into lyophilized tablets through a freeze-drying process using hydrophilic polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP-K30) as a polymeric stabilizer and water-soluble sucrose as a cryoprotectant. The effect of PVP-K30 and sucrose on the particle size, disintegration time, friability, and time required to release 90% of QT were studied using 32 full factorial design. The optimized formula was characterized using different evaluating techniques; for instance, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffractometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, drug content, moisture content, and saturation solubility. The analysis proved that QT was consistently kept in the nanosize range with a narrow size distribution. The loaded silica nanoparticles and the optimized formulation are in an amorphous state devoid of any chemical interaction with the silica matrix or the lyophilization excipients. The optimized formula also featured low friability (less than 1%), fast disintegration (< 30 s), and a pronounced enhancement in saturation solubility and dissolution rate. Briefly, we established that the lyophilized MSNPs-based tablet would be a potential strategy for improving the rate of dissolution and, ultimately, the bioavailability of the poorly water-soluble QT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Elmowafy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Nabil K Alruwaili
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naveed Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulsalam M Kassem
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed F Ibrahim
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
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Direct and Reverse Pluronic Micelles: Design and Characterization of Promising Drug Delivery Nanosystems. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122628. [PMID: 36559122 PMCID: PMC9787366 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pluronics are a family of amphiphilic block copolymers broadly explored in the pharmaceutical field. Under certain conditions, Pluronics self-assemble in different structures including nanosized direct and reverse micelles. This review provides an overview about the main parameters affecting the micellization process of Pluronics, such as polymer length, fragments distribution within the chain, solvents, additives and loading of cargo. Furthermore, it offers a guide about the most common techniques used to characterize the structure and properties of the micelles. Finally, it presents up-to-date approaches to improve the stability and drug loading of Pluronic micelles. Special attention is paid to reverse Pluronics and reverse micelles, currently underexplored in the literature. Pluronic micelles present a bright future as drug delivery agents. A smart design and thorough characterization will improve the transfer to clinical applications.
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Patel SS, Patel HS, Kunjadiya A, Rao V, Sharma RK. Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Activity of Poloxamer‐Assisted Copper Nanoparticles: Investigating the Effects of Different Concentrations of Poloxamer 407. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202201477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saurav S Patel
- Applied Chemistry Department Faculty of Technology and Engineering The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Vadodara Gujarat India
| | - Hemil S Patel
- Applied Chemistry Department Faculty of Technology and Engineering The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Vadodara Gujarat India
| | - Anju Kunjadiya
- Indukaka Ipcowala Center for Interdisciplinary Studies in Science and Technology Sardar Patel University Anand Gujarat India
| | - Vandana Rao
- Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science Faculty of Technology and Engineering The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Vadodara Gujarat India
| | - Rakesh K Sharma
- Applied Chemistry Department Faculty of Technology and Engineering The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Vadodara Gujarat India
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Flavonoids: Food associations, therapeutic mechanisms, metabolism and nanoformulations. Food Res Int 2022; 157:111442. [PMID: 35761682 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Flavonoids possess an impressive therapeutic potential, thereby imparting them a nutraceutical character. As it becomes increasingly common to consume foods associated with healing properties, it is imperative to understand the associations of different foods with different classes of nutraceutic compounds, and their mechanisms of therapeutic action. At the same time, it is important to address the limitations thereof so that plausible future directions may be drawn. This review summarizes the food associations of flavonoids, and discusses the mechanisms responsible for imparting them their nutraceutic properties, detailing the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) signaling pathway, inhibition of inflammatory signaling pathways such as toll-like receptor (TLR), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kB), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenase-2 (LOX-2) mediators. Further on, the review explains the mechanism of flavonoids metabolism, reasons for low bioavailability and thereafter recapitulates the role of technological interventions to overcome the limitations, with a particular focus on nanoformulations that utilize the synergy between flavonoids and biocompatible materials used as nanocarriers, as reported in works spanning over a decade. It is the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) classified carriers that will become the basis for developing functional formulations. It is promisingly noteworthy that some flavonoid formulations have been commercialized and mentioned therein. Such commercially viable and safe for consumption technological applications pave way for bringing science to the table, and add value to the innate properties of flavonoids.
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Liu F, Zhou Y, Liu L, Pan H, Liu H. Effect of 2-ethylbutyric acid on thermodynamics stability of various nonionic surfactants tanshione-loaded micelles. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Conti Nibali V, D’Angelo G, Arena A, Ciofi C, Scandurra G, Branca C. TiO2 Nanoparticles Dispersion in Block-Copolymer Aqueous Solutions: Nanoarchitectonics for Self-Assembly and Aggregation. J Funct Biomater 2022; 13:jfb13020039. [PMID: 35466221 PMCID: PMC9036267 DOI: 10.3390/jfb13020039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Achieving homogenous dispersion of nanoparticles inside a polymeric matrix is a great challenge for numerous applications. In the present study, we aim at understanding the role of different factors on the dispersion properties of TiO2 in pluronic F-127 mixtures. The mixtures were prepared with different pH and guest/host ratios and investigated by UV-Vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, infrared spectroscopy and electrical conductivity. Depending on the preparation conditions, different amounts of TiO2 were loaded within the copolymer as quantitatively determined by UV-Vis spectroscopy. The different content of nanoparticles has direct implications on the gelation and micellization of pluronic analyzed by dynamic light scattering. The information derived on the self-assembly behavior was interpreted in relation to the infrared and conductivity measurements results. Together, these results shed light on the most favorable conditions for improving the nanoparticle dispersion inside the copolymer matrix and suggest a possible strategy to design functional nanoparticle-polymer systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Conti Nibali
- Department of Mathematical and Computer Science, Physical Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres, 98166 Messina, Italy; (V.C.N.); (G.D.)
| | - Giovanna D’Angelo
- Department of Mathematical and Computer Science, Physical Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres, 98166 Messina, Italy; (V.C.N.); (G.D.)
| | - Antonella Arena
- Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Contrada di Dio, I-98166, 98166 Messina, Italy; (A.A.); (C.C.); (G.S.)
| | - Carmine Ciofi
- Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Contrada di Dio, I-98166, 98166 Messina, Italy; (A.A.); (C.C.); (G.S.)
| | - Graziella Scandurra
- Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Contrada di Dio, I-98166, 98166 Messina, Italy; (A.A.); (C.C.); (G.S.)
| | - Caterina Branca
- Department of Mathematical and Computer Science, Physical Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres, 98166 Messina, Italy; (V.C.N.); (G.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-090-6765017
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