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Ramos P, Pinto E, Santos A, Almeida A. Reference values for trace element levels in the human brain: A systematic review of the literature. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2021; 66:126745. [PMID: 33813265 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Some trace elements (TE) are eminently toxic for humans (e.g., Al, Pb, Hg, Cd) and its presence in the central nervous system has been linked to the etiology of neurodegenerative diseases (ND). More recently, the focus has shifted to the potential role of the imbalances on essential TE levels (e.g., Fe, Cu, Zn, Se) within the brain tissue, and they have also been identified as potentially responsible for the cognitive decline associated with normal ageing and the development of some ND, although their definite role remains unclear. Accurately, well-defined reference values for TE levels in human body fluids and tissues are indispensable to identify possible disturbances in individual cases. Moreover, since the brain is a highly heterogeneous organ, with anatomically and physiologically very different areas, a detailed mapping of TE distribution across the brain tissue of normal individuals, with an in-depth analysis of TE levels in the different brain regions, is a mandatory prior work so that the results obtained from patients suffering from ND and other brain diseases can be interpreted. This review aims to compile and summarize the available data regarding TE levels in the different human brain regions of "normal" (non-diseased) individuals in order to contribute to the establishment of robust reference values. Fifty-four studies, published since 1960, were considered. The results showed a great variability between different studies. The potential sources of this variability are discussed. The need for increased harmonization of experimental strategies is highlighted in order to improve the comparability of the data obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Ramos
- LAQV / REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Edgar Pinto
- LAQV / REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal; Department of Environmental Health, School of Health, P.Porto, CISA/Research Center in Environment and Health, 4200-072, Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Santos
- National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, North Branch, Jardim Carrilho Videira, 4050-167, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Almeida
- LAQV / REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
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Cilliers K, Muller CJF. Multi-element Analysis of Brain Regions from South African Cadavers. Biol Trace Elem Res 2021; 199:425-441. [PMID: 32361883 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-020-02158-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Trace elements are vital for a variety of functions in the brain. However, an imbalance can result in oxidative stress. It is important to ascertain the normal levels in different brain regions, as such information is still lacking. Therefore, this study aimed to provide baseline trace element concentrations from a South African population, as well as determine trace element differences between sex and brain regions. Samples from the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus and hippocampus were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Aluminium, antimony, arsenic, barium, boron, cadmium, calcium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, silicon, sodium, strontium, vanadium and zinc were assessed. A multiple median regression model was used to determine differences between sex and regions. Twenty-nine male and 13 female cadavers from a Western Cape, South African population were included (mean age 35 years, range 19 to 45). Trace element levels were comparable to those of other populations, although magnesium was considerably lower. While there were no sex differences, significant anatomical regional differences existed; the caudate nucleus and hippocampus were the most similar, and the globus pallidus and hippocampus the most different. In conclusion, this is the first article to report the trace element concentrations of brain regions from a South African population. Low magnesium levels in the brain may be linked to a dietary deficiency, and migraines, depression and epilepsy have been linked to low magnesium levels. Future research should be directed to increase the dietary intake of magnesium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Cilliers
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, Western Cape, South Africa.
| | - Christo J F Muller
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Platform (BRIP), South African Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, Western Cape, South Africa
- Division of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health ScieAnces, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, Western Cape, South Africa
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Ramos P, Santos A, Pinto E, Pinto NR, Mendes R, Magalhães T, Almeida A. Alkali metals levels in the human brain tissue: Anatomical region differences and age-related changes. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2016; 38:174-182. [PMID: 27150910 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The link between trace elements imbalances (both "toxic" and "essential") in the human brain and neurodegenerative disease has been subject of extensive research. More recently, some studies have highlighted the potential role of the homeostasis deregulation of alkali metals in specific brain regions as key factor in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Using flame atomic emission spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry after microwave-assisted acid digestion of the samples, alkali metals (Na, K, Li, Rb and Cs) were determined in 14 different areas of the human brain (frontal cortex, superior and middle temporal gyri, caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, cingulated gyrus, hippocampus, inferior parietal lobule, visual cortex of the occipital lobe, midbrain, pons, medulla and cerebellum) of adult individuals (n=42; 71±12, range: 50-101 years old) with no known history and evidence of neurodegenerative, neurological or psychiatric disorder. Potassium was found as the most abundant alkali metal, followed by Na, Rb, Cs and Li. Lithium, K and Cs distribution showed to be quite heterogeneous. On the contrary, Rb and Na appeared quite homogeneously distributed within the human brain tissue. The lowest levels of Na, K, Rb and Li were found in the brainstem (midbrain, medulla and pons) and cerebellum, while the lowest levels of Cs were found in the frontal cortex. The highest levels of K (mean±sd; range 15.5±2.5; 8.9-21.8mg/g) Rb (17.2±6.1; 3.9-32.4μg/g and Cs (83.4±48.6; 17.3-220.5ng/g) were found in putamen. The highest levels of Na and Li were found in the frontal cortex (11.6±2.4; 6.6-17.1mg/g) and caudate nucleus (7.6±4.6 2.2-21.3ng/g), respectively. Although K, Cs and Li levels appear to remain largely unchanged with age, some age-related changes were observed for Na and Rb levels in particular brain regions (namely in the hippocampus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Ramos
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Santos
- National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences - North Branch, Jardim Carrilho Videira, 4050-167 Porto, Portugal; CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, Porto University, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; School of Health Sciences, Minho University, Campus of Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Edgar Pinto
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; CISA, Research Centre on Environment and Health, School of Allied Health Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Rua Valente Perfeito 322, 4400-330 Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal
| | - Nair Rosas Pinto
- CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Mendes
- CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Teresa Magalhães
- CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, Porto University, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies (IINFACTS), Department of Sciences, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, R. Central da Gandra 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Almeida
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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Ramos P, Santos A, Pinto NR, Mendes R, Magalhães T, Almeida A. Anatomical region differences and age-related changes in copper, zinc, and manganese levels in the human brain. Biol Trace Elem Res 2014; 161:190-201. [PMID: 25119708 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-014-0093-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry after samples microwave-assisted acid digestion, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) levels were measured in 14 different areas of the human brain of adult individuals (n = 42; 71 ± 12, range 50-101 years old) without a known history of neurodegenerative, neurological, or psychiatric disorder. The main goals of the work were to establish the "normal" (reference) values for those elements in the human brain and to evaluate the age-related changes, a prior and indispensable step in order to enlighten the role of trace element (TE) in human brain physiology and their involvement in aging and neurodegenerative processes. Considering the mean values for the 14 regions, Zn (mean ± sd; range 53 ± 5; 43-61 μg/g) was found at higher levels, followed by Cu (22 ± 5; 10-37 μg/g) and Mn (1.3 ± 0.3; 0.5-2.7 μg/g). The TE distribution across the brain tissue showed to be quite heterogeneous: the highest levels of Zn were found in the hippocampus (70 ± 10; 49-95 μg/g) and superior temporal gyrus (68 ± 10; 44-88 μg/g) and the lowest in the pons (33 ± 8; 19-51 μg/g); the highest levels of Cu and Mn were found in the putamen (36 ± 13; 21-76 μg/g and 2.5 ± 0.8; 0.7-4.5 μg/g, respectively) and the lowest in the medulla (11 ± 6; 2-30 μg/g and 0.8 ± 0.3; 0.2-1.8 μg/g, respectively). A tendency for an age-related increase in Zn and Mn levels was observed in most brain regions while Cu levels showed to be negatively correlated with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Ramos
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
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Correia H, Ramos P, Santos A, Pinto NR, Mendes R, Magalhães T, Almeida A. A post-mortem study of the anatomical region differences and age-related changes on Ca and Mg levels in the human brain. Microchem J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2013.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Tohno Y, Tohno S, Azuma C, Ongkana N, Mahakkanukrauh P, Minami T, Suwannahoy P, Viwatpinyo K, Ke L. Age-related differences and relationships between elements in human amygdala and other limbic system or basal ganglia. Biol Trace Elem Res 2013; 152:161-73. [PMID: 23354542 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-013-9607-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To elucidate the compositional changes of the amygdala with aging, the authors investigated age-related differences of elements in human amygdalae. In addition, the relationships between the amygdala and other brain regions were investigated from a viewpoint of elements. After ordinary dissections at Nara Medical University were finished, the amygdalae were removed from the cerebra of the subjects who consisted of 22 men and 23 women, ranging in age from 70 to 101 years. In addition, the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, mammillary body of the limbic system and the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus of the basal ganglia were also removed from the identical cerebra. After the brain samples were incinerated with nitric acid and perchloric acid, the element contents were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. It was found that both the Ca and Mg contents increased significantly in the amygdalae with aging, but the other five element contents (P, S, Zn, Fe, and Na) did not change significantly in the amygdalae with aging. Regarding the relationships among elements, very significant or significant direct correlations were found among the Ca, P, and Mg contents in the amygdalae. To explore the relationships between the amygdala and either other limbic system or basal ganglia, the correlations between seven elements of the amygdala and hippocampus, dentate gyrus, or mammillary body, and between those of the amygdala and caudate nucleus, putamen, or globus pallidus which derived from the identical cerebra, were analyzed with Pearson's correlation. It was found that regarding the four elements of Ca, P, Mg, and Fe, a close relationship existed between the amygdala and hippocampus, globus pallidus, or mammillary body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Tohno
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand.
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