Simultaneous EGFP and tag labeling of the β7 subunit for live imaging and affinity purification of functional human proteasomes

A novel autism-associated UBLCP1 mutation impacts proteasome regulation/activity

The landscape of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Lebanon is unique because of high rates of consanguinity, shared ancestry, and increased remote consanguinity. ASD prevalence in Lebanon is 1 in 68 with a male-to-female ratio of 2:1. This study aims to investigate the impact of an inherited deletion in UBLCP1 (Ubiquitin-Like Domain-Containing CTD Phosphatase 1) on the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and proteolysis. Whole exome sequencing in a Lebanese family with ASD without pathogenic copy number variations (CNVs) uncovered a deletion in UBLCP1. Functional evaluation of the identified variant is described in fibroblasts from the affected. The deletion in UBLCP1 exon 10 (g.158,710,261CAAAG > C) generates a premature stop codon interrupting the phosphatase domain and is predicted as pathogenic. It is absent from databases of normal variation worldwide and in Lebanon. Wild-type UBLCP1 is widely expressed in mouse brains. The mutation results in decreased UBLCP1 protein expression in patient-derived fibroblasts from the autistic patient compared to controls. The truncated UBLCP1 protein results in increased proteasome activity decreased ubiquitinated protein levels, and downregulation in expression of other proteasome subunits in samples from the affected compared to controls. Inhibition of the proteasome by using MG132 in proband cells reverses alterations in gene expression due to the restoration of protein levels of the common transcription factor, NRF1. Finally, treatment with gentamicin, which promotes premature termination codon read-through, restores UBLCP1 expression and function. Discovery of an ASD-linked mutation in UBLCP1 leading to overactivation of cell proteolysis is reported. This, in turn, leads to dysregulation of proteasome subunit transcript levels as a compensatory response.

Myelin Basic Protein Fragmentation by Engineered Human Proteasomes with Different Catalytic Phenotypes Revealed Direct Peptide Ligands of MS-Associated and Protective HLA Class I Molecules

Proteasomes exist in mammalian cells in multiple combinatorial variants due to the diverse regulatory particles and exchange of catalytic subunits. Here, using biotin carboxyl carrier domain of transcarboxylase from Propionibacterium shermanii fused with different proteasome subunits of catalytic and regulatory particles, we report comprehensive characterization of highly homogenous one-step purified human constitutive and immune 20S and 26S/30S proteasomes. Hydrolysis of a multiple sclerosis (MS) autoantigen, myelin basic protein (MBP), by engineered human proteasomes with different catalytic phenotypes, revealed that peptides which may be directly loaded on the HLA class I molecules are produced mainly by immunoproteasomes. We detected at least five MBP immunodominant core regions, namely, LPRHRDTGIL, SLPQKSHGR, QDENPVVHFF, KGRGLSLSRF and GYGGRASDY. All peptides, except QDENPVVHFF, which originates from the encephalitogenic MBP part, were associated with HLA I alleles considered to increase MS risk. Prediction of the affinity of HLA class I to this peptide demonstrated that MS-protective HLA-A*44 and -B*35 molecules are high-affinity binders, whereas MS-associated HLA-A*23, -A*24, -A*26 and -B*51 molecules tend to have moderate to low affinity. The HLA-A*44 molecules may bind QDENPVVHFF and its deamidated form in several registers with unprecedently high affinity, probably linking its distinct protective phenotype with thymic depletion of the repertoire of autoreactive cytotoxic T cells or induction of CD8+ regulatory T cells, specific to the encephalitogenic MBP peptide.

A Cell-Based Platform for the Investigation of Immunoproteasome Subunit β5i Expression and Biology of β5i-Containing Proteasomes

The degradation of most intracellular proteins is a dynamic and tightly regulated process performed by proteasomes. To date, different forms of proteasomes have been identified. Currently the role of non-constitutive proteasomes (immunoproteasomes (iPs) and intermediate proteasomes (intPs)) has attracted special attention. Here, using a CRISPR-Cas9 nickase technology, four cell lines: histiocytic lymphoma, colorectal adenocarcinoma, cervix adenocarcinoma, and hepatocarcinoma were modified to express proteasomes with mCherry-tagged β5i subunit, which is a catalytic subunit of iPs and intPs. Importantly, the expression of the chimeric gene in modified cells is under the control of endogenous regulatory mechanisms and is increased following IFN-γ and/or TNF-α stimulation. Fluorescent proteasomes retain catalytic activity and are distributed within the nucleus and cytoplasm. RNAseq reveals marginal differences in gene expression profiles between the modified and wild-type cell lines. Predominant metabolic pathways and patterns of expressed receptors were identified for each cell line. Using established cell lines, we demonstrated that anti-cancer drugs Ruxolitinib, Vincristine and Gefitinib stimulated the expression of β5i-containing proteasomes, which might affect disease prognosis. Taken together, obtained cell lines can be used as a platform for real-time studies of immunoproteasome gene expression, localization of iPs and intPs, interaction of non-constitutive proteasomes with other proteins, proteasome trafficking and many other aspects of proteasome biology in living cells. Moreover, the established platform might be especially useful for fast and large-scale experiments intended to evaluate the effects of different conditions including treatment with various drugs and compounds on the proteasome pool.

Post-Translational Modifications of Extracellular Proteasome

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is one of the major protein degradation pathways in eukaryotic cells. Abnormal functioning of this system has been observed in cancer and neurological diseases. The 20S proteasomes, essential components of the UPS, are present not only within the cells but also in the extracellular space, and their concentration in blood plasma has been found to be elevated and dependent upon the disease state, being of prognostic significance in patients suffering from cancer, liver diseases, and autoimmune diseases. However, functions of extracellular proteasomes and mechanisms of their release by cells remain largely unknown. The main mechanism of proteasome activity regulation is provided by modulation of their composition and post-translational modifications (PTMs). Moreover, diverse PTMs of proteins are known to participate in the loading of specific elements into extracellular vesicles. Since previous studies have revealed that the transport of extracellular proteasomes may occur via extracellular vesicles, we have set out to explore the PTMs of extracellular proteasomes in comparison to cellular counterparts. In this work, cellular and extracellular proteasomes were affinity purified and separated by SDS-PAGE for subsequent trypsinization and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. In total, we could identify 64 and 55 PTM sites in extracellular and cellular proteasomes, respectively, including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, acetylation, and succinylation. We observed novel sites of acetylation at K238 and K192 of the proteasome subunits β2 and β3, respectively, that are specific for extracellular proteasomes. Moreover, cellular proteasomes show specific acetylation at K227 of α2 and ubiquitination at K201 of β3. Interestingly, succinylation of β6 at the residue K228 seems not to be present exclusively in extracellular proteasomes, whereas both extracellular and cellular proteasomes may also be acetylated at this site. The same situation takes place at K201 of the β3 subunit where ubiquitination is seemingly specific for cellular proteasomes. Moreover, crosstalk between acetylation, ubiquitination, and succinylation has been observed in the subunit α3 of both proteasome populations. These data will serve as a basis for further studies, aimed at dissection of the roles of extracellular proteasome-specific PTMs in terms of the function of these proteasomes and mechanism of their transport into extracellular space.

Proteomic analysis of affinity-purified extracellular proteasomes reveals exclusively 20S complexes

Proteasome-mediated proteolysis is important for many basic cellular processes. In addition to their functions in the cell, proteasomes have been found in physiological fluids of both healthy and diseased humans including cancer patients. Higher levels of these proteasomes are associated with higher cancer burden and stage. The etiology and functions of these proteasomes, referred to as circulating, plasmatic, or extracellular proteasomes (ex-PSs), are unclear. Here we show that human cancer cell lines, as well as human endometrium-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMESCs), release proteasome complexes into culture medium (CM). To define ex-PS composition, we have affinity purified them from CM conditioned by human leukemia cell line K562. Using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry (MS), we have identified core 20S proteasome subunits and a set of 15 proteasome-interacting proteins (PIPs), all previously described as exosome cargo proteins. Three of them, PPIase A, aldolase A, and transferrin, have never been reported as PIPs. The study provides compelling arguments that ex-PSs do not contain 19S or PA200 regulatory particles and are represented exclusively by the 20S complex.

Catalytically Active Proteasomes Function Predominantly in the Cytosol

The ubiquitin/proteasome pathway is a well characterized system for degrading intracellular proteins, although many aspects remain poorly understood. There is, for instance, a conspicuous lack of understanding of the site(s) where nuclear proteins are degraded because the subcellular distribution of peptidase activity has not been investigated systematically. Although nuclear proteins could be degraded by importing proteasomes into the nucleus, it is also evident that some nuclear proteins are degraded only after export to cytosolic proteasomes. Proteasomes and substrates are mobile, and consequently, the sites of degradation might not be static. We sought to identify the location of proteasomes to provide more conclusive evidence on the sites of protein degradation. We report that catalytically active proteasomes exist almost exclusively in the cytosol. The resulting lack of nuclear peptidase activity suggests that little, if any, degradation occurs in the nucleus. These and other studies suggest that the export of proteolytic substrates could define an important regulatory step in the degradation of nuclear proteins by cytosolic proteasomes.

Nuclear Import of Yeast Proteasomes

Proteasomes are highly conserved protease complexes responsible for the degradation of aberrant and short-lived proteins. In highly proliferating yeast and mammalian cells, proteasomes are predominantly nuclear. During quiescence and cell cycle arrest, proteasomes accumulate in granules in close proximity to the nuclear envelope/ER. With prolonged quiescence in yeast, these proteasome granules pinch off as membraneless organelles, and migrate as stable entities through the cytoplasm. Upon exit from quiescence, the proteasome granules clear and the proteasomes are rapidly transported into the nucleus, a process reflecting the dynamic nature of these multisubunit complexes. Due to the scarcity of studies on the nuclear transport of mammalian proteasomes, we summarised the current knowledge on the nuclear import of yeast proteasomes. This pathway uses canonical nuclear localisation signals within proteasomal subunits and Srp1/Kap95, and the canonical import receptor, named importin/karyopherin αβ. Blm10, a conserved 240 kDa protein, which is structurally related to Kap95, provides an alternative import pathway. Two models exist upon which either inactive precursor complexes or active holo-enzymes serve as the import cargo. Here, we reconcile both models and suggest that the import of inactive precursor complexes predominates in dividing cells, while the import of mature enzymes mainly occurs upon exit from quiescence.

Intracellular Dynamics of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome-System

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is the major degradation pathway for short-lived proteins in eukaryotic cells. Targets of the ubiquitin-proteasome-system are proteins regulating a broad range of cellular processes including cell cycle progression, gene expression, the quality control of proteostasis and the response to geno- and proteotoxic stress. Prior to degradation, the proteasomal substrate is marked with a poly-ubiquitin chain. The key protease of the ubiquitin system is the proteasome. In dividing cells, proteasomes exist as holo-enzymes composed of regulatory and core particles. The regulatory complex confers ubiquitin-recognition and ATP dependence on proteasomal protein degradation. The catalytic sites are located in the proteasome core particle. Proteasome holo-enzymes are predominantly nuclear suggesting a major requirement for proteasomal proteolysis in the nucleus. In cell cycle arrested mammalian or quiescent yeast cells, proteasomes deplete from the nucleus and accumulate in granules at the nuclear envelope (NE) / endoplasmic reticulum ( ER) membranes. In prolonged quiescence, proteasome granules drop off the nuclear envelopeNE / ER membranes and migrate as droplet-like entitiesstable organelles  throughout the cytoplasm, as thoroughly investigated in yeast. When quiescence yeast cells are allowed to resume growth, proteasome granules clear and proteasomes are rapidly imported into the nucleus.

Here, we summarize our knowledge about the enigmatic structure of proteasome storage granules and the trafficking of proteasomes and their substrates between the cyto- and nucleoplasm.

Most of our current knowledge is based on studies in yeast. Their translation to mammalian cells promises to provide keen insight into protein degradation in non-dividing cells, which comprise the majority of our body’s cells.

Intracellular Dynamics of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome-System

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is the major degradation pathway for short-lived proteins in eukaryotic cells. Targets of the ubiquitin-proteasome-system are proteins regulating a broad range of cellular processes including cell cycle progression, gene expression, the quality control of proteostasis and the response to geno- and proteotoxic stress. Prior to degradation, the proteasomal substrate is marked with a poly-ubiquitin chain. The key protease of the ubiquitin system is the proteasome. In dividing cells, proteasomes exist as holo-enzymes composed of regulatory and core particles. The regulatory complex confers ubiquitin-recognition and ATP dependence on proteasomal protein degradation. The catalytic sites are located in the proteasome core particle. Proteasome holo-enzymes are predominantly nuclear suggesting a major requirement for proteasomal proteolysis in the nucleus. In cell cycle arrested mammalian or quiescent yeast cells, proteasomes deplete from the nucleus and accumulate in granules at the nuclear envelope (NE) / endoplasmic reticulum ( ER) membranes. In prolonged quiescence, proteasome granules drop off the nuclear envelopeNE / ER membranes and migrate as droplet-like entitiesstable organelles  throughout the cytoplasm, as thoroughly investigated in yeast. When quiescence yeast cells are allowed to resume growth, proteasome granules clear and proteasomes are rapidly imported into the nucleus. Here, we summarize our knowledge about the enigmatic structure of proteasome storage granules and the trafficking of proteasomes and their substrates between the cyto- and nucleoplasm. Most of our current knowledge is based on studies in yeast. Their translation to mammalian cells promises to provide keen insight into protein degradation in non-dividing cells, which comprise the majority of our body's cells.