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Fizíková I, Dragašek J, Račay P. Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Altered Mitochondrial Oxygen, and Energy Metabolism Associated with the Pathogenesis of Schizophrenia. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24097991. [PMID: 37175697 PMCID: PMC10178941 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24097991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The significant complexity of the brain can lead to the development of serious neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. A number of mechanisms are involved in the etiopathogenesis of schizophrenia, pointing to its complexity and opening a new perspective on studying this disorder. In this review of currently published studies, we focused on the contribution of mitochondria to the process, with an emphasis on oxidative damage, ROS, and energy metabolism. In addition, we point out the influence of redox imbalance, which can lead to the occurrence of oxidative stress with increased lipid peroxidation, linked to the formation of toxic aldehydes such as 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and HNE protein adducts. We also analysed the role of lactate in the process of energy metabolism and cognitive functions in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iveta Fizíková
- Outpatient Psychiatry Clinic, 965 01 Žiar nad Hronom, Slovakia
| | - Jozef Dragašek
- 1st Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of P. J. Šafárik, 040 11 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Peter Račay
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, 036 01 Martin, Slovakia
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Fišar Z. Linking the Amyloid, Tau, and Mitochondrial Hypotheses of Alzheimer's Disease and Identifying Promising Drug Targets. Biomolecules 2022; 12:1676. [PMID: 36421690 PMCID: PMC9687482 DOI: 10.3390/biom12111676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Damage or loss of brain cells and impaired neurochemistry, neurogenesis, and synaptic and nonsynaptic plasticity of the brain lead to dementia in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Injury to synapses and neurons and accumulation of extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are considered the main morphological and neuropathological features of AD. Age, genetic and epigenetic factors, environmental stressors, and lifestyle contribute to the risk of AD onset and progression. These risk factors are associated with structural and functional changes in the brain, leading to cognitive decline. Biomarkers of AD reflect or cause specific changes in brain function, especially changes in pathways associated with neurotransmission, neuroinflammation, bioenergetics, apoptosis, and oxidative and nitrosative stress. Even in the initial stages, AD is associated with Aβ neurotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and tau neurotoxicity. The integrative amyloid-tau-mitochondrial hypothesis assumes that the primary cause of AD is the neurotoxicity of Aβ oligomers and tau oligomers, mitochondrial dysfunction, and their mutual synergy. For the development of new efficient AD drugs, targeting the elimination of neurotoxicity, mutual potentiation of effects, and unwanted protein interactions of risk factors and biomarkers (mainly Aβ oligomers, tau oligomers, and mitochondrial dysfunction) in the early stage of the disease seems promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Fišar
- Department of Psychiatry, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Ke Karlovu 11, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic
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Tacrine Derivatives in Neurological Disorders: Focus on Molecular Mechanisms and Neurotherapeutic Potential. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:7252882. [PMID: 36035218 PMCID: PMC9410840 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7252882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Tacrine is a drug used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease as a cognitive enhancer and inhibitor of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). However, its clinical application has been restricted due to its poor therapeutic efficacy and high prevalence of detrimental effects. An attempt was made to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie tacrine and its analogues influence over neurotherapeutic activity by focusing on modulation of neurogenesis, neuroinflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and regulatory role in gene and protein expression, energy metabolism, Ca2+ homeostasis modulation, and osmotic regulation. Regardless of this, analogues of tacrine are considered as a model inhibitor of cholinesterase in the therapy of Alzheimer's disease. The variety both in structural make-up and biological functions of these substances is the main appeal for researchers' interest in them. A new paradigm for treating neurological diseases is presented in this review, which includes treatment strategies for Alzheimer's disease, as well as other neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease and the synthesis and biological properties of newly identified versatile tacrine analogues and hybrids. We have also shown that these analogues may have therapeutic promise in the treatment of neurological diseases in a variety of experimental systems.
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Kumar S, Nair AS, Bhashkar V, Sudevan ST, Koyiparambath VP, Khames A, Abdelgawad MA, Mathew B. Navigating into the Chemical Space of Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors by Artificial Intelligence and Cheminformatics Approach. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:23399-23411. [PMID: 34549139 PMCID: PMC8444296 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c03250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzyme class is a prevalent target for many neurodegenerative and depressive disorders. Even though scrutinization of many promising drugs for the treatment of MAO inhibition has been carried out in recent times, a conclusive structural requirement for potent activity needs to be developed. Numerous approaches have been examined for the identification of structural features for potent MAO inhibitors (MAOIs) that mainly involve an array of computational studies, synthetic approaches, and biological evaluation. In this paper, we have analyzed ∼2200 well-known MAOIs to expand perceptions in the chemical space of MAOIs. The physicochemical properties of the MAOIs disclosed a discernible hydrophobic feature making a bunch discrete from the central nervous system (CNS) acting drugs, as exposed using the principal component analysis (PCA). The Murcko scaffold structure study revealed unfavorable and favorable scaffold structures, in both data sets, with the highest biological activity shown by the 3-phenyl-2H-chromen-2-one scaffold. This scaffold showed a polypharmacological effect. R-group disintegration and automatic structure-activity relationship (SAR) study resulted in identification of substructures responsible for the inhibitory bioactivity of the MAO-A and MAO-B enzymes. Moreover, with activity cliff analysis, significant biological activity was detected by simple molecular conversion in the chemical compound structure. In addition, we used the machine learning tool to generate a hypothesis wherein pyrazole, benzene ring, and amide containing structural functionalities can exhibit potential biological activities. This hypothesis revealed that CNS target drugs, C4155, C13390, C21265, C43862, C31524, C24810, C37100, C42075, and C43644, could be repurposed as valuable candidates for the MAO-B enzyme. For researchers, this study will bring new perceptions in the discovery and development of MAOIs and direct lead and hit optimization for the progress of small molecules beneficial for MAO-targeting associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Kumar
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Aathira Sujathan Nair
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Vaishnav Bhashkar
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Sachithra Thazhathuveedu Sudevan
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Vishal Payyalot Koyiparambath
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Ahmed Khames
- Department
of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed A. Abdelgawad
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka, Al Jouf 72341, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bijo Mathew
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682041, India
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