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Rojo JU, Rajendran R, Salazar JH. Laboratory Diagnosis of Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis. Lab Med 2023; 54:e124-e132. [PMID: 36638160 DOI: 10.1093/labmed/lmac158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) is a fulminant fatal human disease caused by the free-living amoeba Naegleria fowleri. Infection occurs after inhalation of water containing the amoeba, typically after swimming in bodies of warm freshwater. N. fowleri migrates to the brain where it incites meningoencephalitis and cerebral edema leading to death of the patient 7 to 10 days postinfection. Although the disease is rare, it is almost always fatal and believed to be underreported. The incidence of PAM in countries other than the United States is unclear and possibly on track to being an emerging disease. Poor prognosis is caused by rapid progression, suboptimal treatment, and underdiagnosis. As diagnosis is often performed postmortem and testing is only performed by a few laboratories, more accessible testing is necessary. This article reviews the current methods used in the screening and confirmation of PAM and makes recommendations for improved diagnostic practices and awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan U Rojo
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Health Professions, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, US
| | - Rajkumar Rajendran
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Health Professions, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, US
| | - Jose H Salazar
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Health Professions, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, US
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Milanez GD, Carlos KB, Adao ME, Ayson BB, Dicon AV, Gahol RAM, Lacre SKS, Marquez FPE, Perez AJM, Karanis P. Epidemiology of free-living amoebae infections in Africa: a review. Pathog Glob Health 2023; 117:527-534. [PMID: 36562083 PMCID: PMC10392319 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2022.2160890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
FLA-related conditions are a rare medical occurrence. Despite their rarity, they are considered a public health concern for two reasons: the absence of a regular treatment regimen in the case of central nervous system infections and the fast progression of the symptoms leading to fatal outcomes. A total of 358 articles were retrieved from different databases (91 from PubMed, 26 from NCBI, 138 from Academia, 102 from Science Direct, and one from IJMED). 7 (46.6%) clinical cases came from Egypt, 2 (13.3%) cases of FLA infection came from Nigeria, 3 (20%) cases came from the Gambia, and 1 (6.6%) case was reported from African countries like Algeria, Tunisia, South Africa, and Zambia. Medical conditions caused by free-living amoeba are considered significant public health concerns. These ubiquitous organisms can cause both fatal and debilitating health conditions. Immediate diagnosis of cases and proper hygienic practices are necessary to provide direct medical intervention. They may be the key to reducing the morbidity and mortality rates from FLA-acquired infections. Although several government-led initiatives have been implemented to mitigate a plethora of parasitic diseases, the case of FLA-related conditions in African countries has yet to be realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni D. Milanez
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
| | - Karlo B. Carlos
- School of Medicine, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines
| | - Mary Erika Adao
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines
| | - Bernadette B Ayson
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines
| | - Ariela V. Dicon
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines
| | | | | | | | - April Jane M. Perez
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Department of Basic and Clinical Science, University of Nicosia Medical School, Nicosia, Cyprus
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Ahmad Zamzuri M‘AI, Abd Majid FN, Mihat M, Ibrahim SS, Ismail M, Abd Aziz S, Mohamed Z, Rejali L, Yahaya H, Abdullah Z, Hassan MR, Dapari R, Mohd Isa AM. Systematic Review of Brain-Eating Amoeba: A Decade Update. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:3021. [PMID: 36833715 PMCID: PMC9964342 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20043021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) is a rare but lethal infection of the brain caused by a eukaryote called Naegleria fowleri (N. fowleri). The aim of this review is to consolidate the recently published case reports of N. fowleri infection by describing its epidemiology and clinical features with the goal of ultimately disseminating this information to healthcare personnel. METHODS A comprehensive literature search was carried out using PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and OVID databases until 31 December 2022 by two independent reviewers. All studies from the year 2013 were extracted, and quality assessments were carried out meticulously prior to their inclusion in the final analysis. RESULTS A total of 21 studies were selected for qualitative analyses out of the 461 studies extracted. The cases were distributed globally, and 72.7% of the cases succumbed to mortality. The youngest case was an 11-day-old boy, while the eldest was a 75-year-old. Significant exposure to freshwater either from recreational activities or from a habit of irrigating the nostrils preceded onset. The symptoms at early presentation included fever, headache, and vomiting, while late sequalae showed neurological manifestation. An accurate diagnosis remains a challenge, as the symptoms mimic bacterial meningitis. Confirmatory tests include the direct visualisation of the amoeba or the use of the polymerase chain reaction method. CONCLUSIONS N. fowleri infection is rare but leads to PAM. Its occurrence is worldwide with a significant risk of fatality. The suggested probable case definition based on the findings is the acute onset of fever, headache, and vomiting with meningeal symptoms following exposure to freshwater within the previous 14 days. Continuous health promotion and health education activities for the public can help to improve knowledge and awareness prior to engagement in freshwater activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Farah Nabila Abd Majid
- Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Canselor Tuanku Muhriz, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Massitah Mihat
- Negeri Sembilan State Health Department, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Malaysia
| | - Siti Salwa Ibrahim
- Negeri Sembilan State Health Department, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Ismail
- Negeri Sembilan State Health Department, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Malaysia
| | - Suriyati Abd Aziz
- Negeri Sembilan State Health Department, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Malaysia
| | - Zuraida Mohamed
- Negeri Sembilan State Health Department, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Malaysia
| | - Lokman Rejali
- Negeri Sembilan State Health Department, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Malaysia
| | - Hazlina Yahaya
- Public Health Division, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Putrajaya 62000, Malaysia
| | - Zulhizzam Abdullah
- Public Health Division, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Putrajaya 62000, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Rohaizat Hassan
- Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia
| | - Rahmat Dapari
- Department of Community Health, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Abd Majid Mohd Isa
- Faculty of Education and Liberal Arts, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN Putra Nilai, Nilai 71800, Malaysia
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Fabros MRL, Diesta XRS, Oronan JA, Verdejo KS, Garcia JASM, Sophia Romey M, Milanez GDJ. Current report on the prevalence of free-living amoebae (FLA) in natural hot springs: a systematic review. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2021; 19:563-574. [PMID: 34371494 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2021.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae (FLA) in natural hot springs is considered a public health concern. FLAs are known to cause serious health outcomes to a wide spectrum of mammalian hosts. The present study aimed to provide the distribution of isolated cases of FLAs in hot springs through a systematic review process of available published articles online. Relevant studies are published between January 2010 and January 2020 involving the isolation of Naegleria spp., Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia spp., Sappinia spp., and Vermamoeba spp. in natural hot springs in the United States, South America, North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Articles were identified through a search of PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Out of 94 articles screened, a total of 20 articles are included in the study with consideration of established inclusion and exclusion criteria. The most common FLAs isolated in hot springs are Acanthamoeba spp. (134; 48.5%) and Naegleria spp. (127; 46.0%). Other FLAs isolated in hot springs include Balamuthia spp. (2; 0.7%) and Vermamoeba spp. (13; 4.7%). FLA in hot springs used for recreational and medical purposes is a potential source of infection. It is recommended that strict surveillance and maintenance of hot springs be implemented to prevent potential future infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John Anthony Oronan
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila 1015, Philippines E-mail:
| | - Kim Sofia Verdejo
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila 1015, Philippines E-mail:
| | | | - Ma Sophia Romey
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila 1015, Philippines E-mail:
| | - Giovanni De Jesus Milanez
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University, Manila 1015, Philippines E-mail: ; Division III (Medical Sciences), National Research Council of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines
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Taravaud A, Fechtali-Moute Z, Loiseau PM, Pomel S. Drugs used for the treatment of cerebral and disseminated infections caused by free-living amoebae. Clin Transl Sci 2021; 14:791-805. [PMID: 33650319 PMCID: PMC8212752 DOI: 10.1111/cts.12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Free‐living amoebae (FLAs) are protozoa developing autonomously in diverse natural or artificial environments. The FLAs Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, and Naegleria fowleri represent a risk for human health as they can become pathogenic and cause severe cerebral infections, named granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis (BAE), and primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), respectively. Additionally, Acanthamoeba sp. can also rarely disseminate to diverse organs, such as the skin, sinuses, or bones, and cause extracerebral disseminated acanthamebiasis (EDA). No consensus treatment has been established for cerebral FLA infections or EDA. The therapy of cerebral and disseminated FLA infections often empirically associates a large diversity of drugs, all exhibiting a high toxicity. Nevertheless, these pathologies lead to a high mortality, above 90% of the cases, even in the presence of a treatment. In the present work, a total of 474 clinical cases of FLA infections gathered from the literature allowed to determine the frequency of usage, as well as the efficacy of the main drugs and drug combinations used in the treatment of these pathologies. The efficacy of drug usage was determined based on the survival rate after drug administration. The most efficient drugs, drug combinations, and their mechanism of action were discussed in regard to the present recommendations for the treatment of GAE, EDA, BAE, and PAM. At the end, this review aims to provide a useful tool for physicians in their choice to optimize the treatment of FLA infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Taravaud
- BioCIS, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Zineb Fechtali-Moute
- BioCIS, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Philippe M Loiseau
- BioCIS, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Sébastien Pomel
- BioCIS, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Châtenay-Malabry, France
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Angelici MC, Walochnik J, Calderaro A, Saxinger L, Dacks JB. Free-living amoebae and other neglected protistan pathogens: Health emergency signals? Eur J Protistol 2020; 77:125760. [PMID: 33340850 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2020.125760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Protistan parasites have an undisputed global health impact. However, outside of a few key exceptions, e.g. the agent of malaria, most of these infectious agents are neglected as important health threats. The Symposium entitled "Free-living amoebae and neglected pathogenic protozoa: health emergency signals?" held at the European Congress of Protistology in Rome, July 2019, brought together researchers addressing scientific and clinical questions about some of these fascinating organisms. Topics presented included the molecular basis of pathogenicity in Acanthamoeba; genomics of Naegleria fowleri; and epidemiology of poorly diagnosed enteric protistan species, including Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Blastocystis, Dientamoeba. The Symposium aim was to excite the audience about the opportunities and challenges of research in these underexplored organisms and to underline the public health implications of currently under-appreciated protistan infections. The major take home message is that any knowledge that we gain about these organisms will allow us to better address them, in terms of monitoring and treatment, as sources of future health emergencies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia Walochnik
- Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Adriana Calderaro
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Lynora Saxinger
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joel B Dacks
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
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Panda A, Mirdha BR, Rastogi N, Kasuhik S. Understanding the true burden of "Naegleria fowleri" (Vahlkampfiidae) in patients from Northern states of India: Source tracking and significance. Eur J Protistol 2020; 76:125726. [PMID: 32682925 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2020.125726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The present study is an attempt to investigate the presence of Naegleria fowleri in Indian population. A total of 307 patients were enrolled and water samples were collected from both residential and surrounding areas of patients found positive for N. fowleri. The different species of Naegleria from both clinical and water samples were identified taxonomically. Recommended microbiological conventional techniques were used to identify different Naegleria stages and other free-living amoebae from the samples. PCR assays, using both genus and species specific primers were also optimized. None of the samples were positive by conventional microbiological examinations. However, PCR assays detected only three samples positive for N. fowleri. A total of 10 water bodies (ponds), that were used by Naegleria positive patients were examined. The pH and temperature of the water samples collected from water bodies ranged between 5.6-7.2 and 25-32 °C respectively. Among all the 10 water samples tested, four samples were positive for genus Naegleria by PCR assay, of which only two samples, showed positive amplification for N. fowleri. The sequence analysis of N. fowleri strain belonged to genotype II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Panda
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Bijay Ranjan Mirdha
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.
| | - Neha Rastogi
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Samander Kasuhik
- Centre for Biotechnology, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India
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A case of primary amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria fowleri in Bangladesh. Parasitol Res 2019; 119:339-344. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06463-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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9
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Jahangeer M, Mahmood Z, Munir N, Waraich U, Tahir IM, Akram M, Ali Shah SM, Zulfqar A, Zainab R. Naegleria fowleri: Sources of infection, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management; a review. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2019; 47:199-212. [DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Jahangeer
- Department of Biochemistry Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Zahed Mahmood
- Department of Biochemistry Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Naveed Munir
- Department of Biochemistry Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
- College of Allied Health Professionals Directorate of Medical Sciences Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | | | - Imtiaz Mahmood Tahir
- College of Allied Health Professionals Directorate of Medical Sciences Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Akram
- Department of Eastern Medicine Directorate of Medical Sciences Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Syed Muhammad Ali Shah
- Department of Eastern Medicine Directorate of Medical Sciences Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Ayesha Zulfqar
- Department of Biochemistry Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Rida Zainab
- Department of Eastern Medicine Directorate of Medical Sciences Government College University Faisalabad Faisalabad Pakistan
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Mittal N, Mahajan L, Hussain Z, Gupta P, Khurana S. Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis in an Infant. Indian J Med Microbiol 2019; 37:120-122. [DOI: 10.4103/ijmm.ijmm_18_371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Cárdenas-Zúñiga R, Silva-Olivares A, Villalba-Magdaleno JDA, Sánchez-Monroy V, Serrano-Luna J, Shibayama M. Amphotericin B induces apoptosis-like programmed cell death in Naegleria fowleri and Naegleria gruberi. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2017; 163:940-949. [PMID: 28721850 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri and Naegleria gruberi belong to the free-living amoebae group. It is widely known that the non-pathogenic species N. gruberi is usually employed as a model to describe molecular pathways in this genus, mainly because its genome has been recently described. However, N. fowleri is an aetiological agent of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, an acute and fatal disease. Currently, the most widely used drug for its treatment is amphotericin B (AmB). It was previously reported that AmB has an amoebicidal effect in both N. fowleri and N. gruberi trophozoites by inducing morphological changes that resemble programmed cell death (PCD). PCD is a mechanism that activates morphological, biochemical and genetic changes. However, PCD has not yet been characterized in the genus Naegleria. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the typical markers to describe PCD in both amoebae. These results showed that treated trophozoites displayed several parameters of apoptosis-like PCD in both species. We observed ultrastructural changes, an increase in reactive oxygen species, phosphatidylserine externalization and a decrease in intracellular potassium, while DNA degradation was evaluated using the TUNEL assay and agarose gels, and all of these parameters are related to PCD. Finally, we analysed the expression of apoptosis-related genes, such as sir2 and atg8, in N. gruberi. Taken together, our results showed that AmB induces the morphological, biochemical and genetic changes of apoptosis-like PCD in the genus Naegleria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Cárdenas-Zúñiga
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Angélica Silva-Olivares
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Virginia Sánchez-Monroy
- Laboratorio de Biomedicina Molecular, Escuela Nacional de Medicina y Homeopatía, Instituto Politénico Nacional, Calle Guillermo Massieu H. 239, Col. La Escalera, 07320, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jesús Serrano-Luna
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Mineko Shibayama
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360, Mexico City, Mexico
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Martínez-Castillo M, Cárdenas-Zúñiga R, Coronado-Velázquez D, Debnath A, Serrano-Luna J, Shibayama M. Naegleria fowleri after 50 years: is it a neglected pathogen? J Med Microbiol 2016; 65:885-896. [PMID: 27381464 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been 50 years since the first case of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), an acute and rapidly fatal disease of the central nervous system (CNS), was reported in Australia. It is now known that the aetiological agent of PAM is Naegleria fowleri, an amoeba that is commonly known as 'the brain-eating amoeba'. N. fowleri infects humans of different ages who are in contact with water contaminated with this micro-organism. N. fowleri is distributed worldwide and is found growing in bodies of freshwater in tropical and subtropical environments. The number of PAM cases has recently increased, and the rate of recovery from PAM has been estimated at only 5 %. Amphotericin B has been used to treat patients with PAM. However, it is important to note that there is no specific treatment for PAM. Moreover, this amoeba is considered a neglected micro-organism. Researchers have exerted great effort to design effective drugs to treat PAM and to understand the pathogenesis of PAM over the past 50 years, such as its pathology, molecular and cellular biology, diagnosis and prevention, and its biological implications, including its pathogenic genotypes, its distribution and its ecology. Given the rapid progression of PAM and its high mortality rate, it is important that investigations continue and that researchers collaborate to gain better understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease and, consequently, to improve the diagnosis and treatment of this devastating infection of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Martínez-Castillo
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, Mexico City 07360, Mexico
| | - Roberto Cárdenas-Zúñiga
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, Mexico City 07360, Mexico
| | - Daniel Coronado-Velázquez
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, Mexico City 07360, Mexico
| | - Anjan Debnath
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jesús Serrano-Luna
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, Mexico City 07360, Mexico
| | - Mineko Shibayama
- Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Av. IPN 2508, Mexico City 07360, Mexico
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Panda A, Khalil S, Mirdha BR, Singh Y, Kaushik S. Prevalence of Naegleria fowleri in Environmental Samples from Northern Part of India. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137736. [PMID: 26484533 PMCID: PMC4618853 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri the causative agent of Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis, is ubiquitously distributed worldwide in various warm aquatic environments and soil habitats. The present study reports on the presence of Naegleria spp. in various water bodies present in Rohtak and Jhajjar district, of state Haryana, India. A total of 107 water reservoirs were screened from summer till autumn (2012 and 2013). In order to isolate Naegleria spp. from the collected water samples, the water samples were filtered and the trapped debris after processing were transferred to non-nutrient agar plates already seeded with lawn culture of Escherichia coli. Out of total 107 water samples, 43 (40%) samples were positive by culture for free living amoeba after incubation for 14 days at 37°C. To identify the isolates, the ITS1, 5.8SrDNA and ITS2 regions were targeted for PCR assay. Out of total 43 positive samples, 37 isolates were positive for Naegleria spp. using genus specific primers and the most frequently isolated species was Naegleria australiensis. Out of 37 Naegleria spp. positive isolates, 1 isolate was positive for Naegleria fowleri. The sequence analysis revealed that the Naegleria fowleri strain belonged to Type 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Panda
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Shehla Khalil
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Bijay Ranjan Mirdha
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
- * E-mail: ;
| | - Yogita Singh
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Samander Kaushik
- Centre for Biotechnology, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Harayana, India
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De Jonckheere JF. What do we know by now about the genus Naegleria? Exp Parasitol 2014; 145 Suppl:S2-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2013] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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