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Felipe Perez R, Mochi G, Khan A, Woodford M. Mitochondrial Chaperone Code: Just warming up. Cell Stress Chaperones 2024; 29:483-496. [PMID: 38763405 PMCID: PMC11153887 DOI: 10.1016/j.cstres.2024.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024] Open
Abstract
More than 99% of the mitochondrial proteome is encoded by the nucleus and requires refolding following import. Therefore, mitochondrial proteins require the coordinated action of molecular chaperones for their folding and activation. Several heat shock protein (Hsp) molecular chaperones, including members of the Hsp27, Hsp40/70, and Hsp90 families, as well as the chaperonin complex Hsp60/10 have an established role in mitochondrial protein import and folding. The "Chaperone Code" describes the regulation of chaperone activity by dynamic post-translational modifications; however, little is known about the post-translational regulation of mitochondrial chaperones. Dissecting the regulation of chaperone function is essential for understanding their differential regulation in pathogenic conditions and the potential development of efficacious therapeutic strategies. Here, we summarize the recent literature on post-translational regulation of mitochondrial chaperones, the consequences for mitochondrial function, and potential implications for disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Felipe Perez
- Department of Urology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Gianna Mochi
- Department of Urology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, State University of New York, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Ariba Khan
- Department of Urology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Mark Woodford
- Department of Urology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, State University of New York, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA.
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2
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Buchner J, Alasady MJ, Backe SJ, Blagg BSJ, Carpenter RL, Colombo G, Gelis I, Gewirth DT, Gierasch LM, Houry WA, Johnson JL, Kang BH, Kao AW, LaPointe P, Mattoo S, McClellan AJ, Neckers LM, Prodromou C, Rasola A, Sager RA, Theodoraki MA, Truman AW, Truttman MC, Zachara NE, Bourboulia D, Mollapour M, Woodford MR. Second international symposium on the chaperone code, 2023. Cell Stress Chaperones 2024; 29:88-96. [PMID: 38316354 PMCID: PMC10939070 DOI: 10.1016/j.cstres.2024.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Buchner
- Department of Bioscience, Technical University of Munich, D85748, Garching, Germany.
| | - Milad J Alasady
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA; Simpson Querrey Center for Epigenetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Sarah J Backe
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Brian S J Blagg
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Warren Family Research Center for Drug Discovery and Development, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Richard L Carpenter
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA; Medical Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA; Simon Cancer Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Giorgio Colombo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Ioannis Gelis
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA
| | - Daniel T Gewirth
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Lila M Gierasch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA; Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Walid A Houry
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1M1, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Jill L Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences and the Center for Reproductive Biology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Byoung Heon Kang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institutes of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, South Korea
| | - Aimee W Kao
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Paul LaPointe
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Seema Mattoo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA; Purdue Institute for Inflammation, Immunology and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Amie J McClellan
- Division of Science and Mathematics, Bennington College, Bennington, VT, 05201, USA
| | - Leonard M Neckers
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | | | - Andrea Rasola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Rebecca A Sager
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | | | - Andrew W Truman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Matthias C Truttman
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA; Geriatrics Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Natasha E Zachara
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA; Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Dimitra Bourboulia
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Mehdi Mollapour
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA.
| | - Mark R Woodford
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA.
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3
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Xiang Y, Liu X, Sun Q, Liao K, Liu X, Zhao Z, Feng L, Liu Y, Wang B. The development of cancers research based on mitochondrial heat shock protein 90. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1296456. [PMID: 38098505 PMCID: PMC10720920 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1296456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial heat shock protein 90 (mtHsp90), including Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated protein 1 (TRAP1) and Hsp90 translocated from cytoplasm, modulating cellular metabolism and signaling pathways by altering the conformation, activity, and stability of numerous client proteins, and is highly expressed in tumors. mtHsp90 inhibition results in the destabilization and eventual degradation of its client proteins, leading to interference with various tumor-related pathways and efficient control of cancer cell development. Among these compounds, gamitrinib, a specific mtHsp90 inhibitor, has demonstrated its safety and efficacy in several preclinical investigations and is currently undergoing evaluation in clinical trials. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the present knowledge pertaining to mtHsp90, encompassing its structure and function. Moreover, our main emphasis is on the development of mtHsp90 inhibitors for various cancer therapies, to present a thorough overview of the recent pre-clinical and clinical advancements in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchu Xiang
- West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xudong Liu
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Qi Sun
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Centre for Safe Medication Practice and Research, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kuo Liao
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaohan Liu
- Multiscale Research Institute of Complex Systems, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zihui Zhao
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lishuang Feng
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Department of Organ Transplantation, Guizhou Provincial People’s Hospital, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Department of Urology, Guizhou Provincial People’s Hospital, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
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4
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Backe SJ, Sager RA, Heritz JA, Wengert LA, Meluni KA, Aran-Guiu X, Panaretou B, Woodford MR, Prodromou C, Bourboulia D, Mollapour M. Activation of autophagy depends on Atg1/Ulk1-mediated phosphorylation and inhibition of the Hsp90 chaperone machinery. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112807. [PMID: 37453059 PMCID: PMC10529509 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular homeostasis relies on both the chaperoning of proteins and the intracellular degradation system that delivers cytoplasmic constituents to the lysosome, a process known as autophagy. The crosstalk between these processes and their underlying regulatory mechanisms is poorly understood. Here, we show that the molecular chaperone heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) forms a complex with the autophagy-initiating kinase Atg1 (yeast)/Ulk1 (mammalian), which suppresses its kinase activity. Conversely, environmental cues lead to Atg1/Ulk1-mediated phosphorylation of a conserved serine in the amino domain of Hsp90, inhibiting its ATPase activity and altering the chaperone dynamics. These events impact a conformotypic peptide adjacent to the activation and catalytic loop of Atg1/Ulk1. Finally, Atg1/Ulk1-mediated phosphorylation of Hsp90 leads to dissociation of the Hsp90:Atg1/Ulk1 complex and activation of Atg1/Ulk1, which is essential for initiation of autophagy. Our work indicates a reciprocal regulatory mechanism between the chaperone Hsp90 and the autophagy kinase Atg1/Ulk1 and consequent maintenance of cellular proteostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Backe
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Rebecca A Sager
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Jennifer A Heritz
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Laura A Wengert
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Katherine A Meluni
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Xavier Aran-Guiu
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Barry Panaretou
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London SE1 9NQ, UK
| | - Mark R Woodford
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | | | - Dimitra Bourboulia
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Mehdi Mollapour
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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5
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van Oosten-Hawle P, Backe SJ, Ben-Zvi A, Bourboulia D, Brancaccio M, Brodsky J, Clark M, Colombo G, Cox MB, De Los Rios P, Echtenkamp F, Edkins A, Freeman B, Goloubinoff P, Houry W, Johnson J, LaPointe P, Li W, Mezger V, Neckers L, Nillegoda NB, Prahlad V, Reitzel A, Scherz-Shouval R, Sistonen L, Tsai FTF, Woodford MR, Mollapour M, Truman AW. Second Virtual International Symposium on Cellular and Organismal Stress Responses, September 8-9, 2022. Cell Stress Chaperones 2023; 28:1-9. [PMID: 36602710 PMCID: PMC9877255 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-022-01318-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The Second International Symposium on Cellular and Organismal Stress Responses took place virtually on September 8-9, 2022. This meeting was supported by the Cell Stress Society International (CSSI) and organized by Patricija Van Oosten-Hawle and Andrew Truman (University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA) and Mehdi Mollapour (SUNY Upstate Medical University, USA). The goal of this symposium was to continue the theme from the initial meeting in 2020 by providing a platform for established researchers, new investigators, postdoctoral fellows, and students to present and exchange ideas on various topics on cellular stress and chaperones. We will summarize the highlights of the meeting here and recognize those that received recognition from the CSSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricija van Oosten-Hawle
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
| | - Sarah J Backe
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
- Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Anat Ben-Zvi
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Dimitra Bourboulia
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
- Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Mara Brancaccio
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Jeff Brodsky
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Melody Clark
- British Antarctic Survey, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, UK
| | - Giorgio Colombo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Marc B Cox
- Border Biomedical Research Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, 79968, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, 79968, USA
| | - Paolo De Los Rios
- Institute of Physics & Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Frank Echtenkamp
- Urologic Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Adrienne Edkins
- Biomedical Biotechnology Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
- Centre for Chemico- and Biomedicinal Research, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
| | - Brian Freeman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Pierre Goloubinoff
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Walid Houry
- Department of Biochemistry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Jill Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences and the Center for Reproductive Biology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Paul LaPointe
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Wei Li
- The Department of Dermatology and the USC-Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, USA
- University of Southern California Keck Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Valerie Mezger
- CNRS, and Epigenetics and Cell Fate Center, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Len Neckers
- Urologic Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Nadinath B Nillegoda
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Dementia and Brain Repair at the Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Veena Prahlad
- Department of Biology, Aging Mind and Brain Initiative, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Adam Reitzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Ruth Scherz-Shouval
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Lea Sistonen
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Cell Biology, Åbo Akademi University, 20520, Turku, Finland
- Turku Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Francis T F Tsai
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Molecular and Cellular Biology, and Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Mark R Woodford
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
- Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Mehdi Mollapour
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA.
- Upstate Cancer Center, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, NY, 13210, USA.
| | - Andrew W Truman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
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Sager RA, Backe SJ, Neckers L, Woodford MR, Mollapour M. Detecting Posttranslational Modifications of Hsp90 Isoforms. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2693:125-139. [PMID: 37540432 PMCID: PMC10518168 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3342-7_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
The molecular chaperone heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is essential in eukaryotes. Hsp90 chaperones proteins that are important determinants of multistep carcinogenesis. There are multiple Hsp90 isoforms including the cytosolic Hsp90α and Hsp90β as well as GRP94 located in the endoplasmic reticulum and TRAP1 in the mitochondria. The chaperone function of Hsp90 is linked to its ability to bind and hydrolyze ATP. Co-chaperones and posttranslational modifications (such as phosphorylation, SUMOylation, and ubiquitination) are important for Hsp90 stability and regulation of its ATPase activity. Both mammalian and yeast cells can be used to express and purify Hsp90 and TRAP1 and also detect post-translational modifications by immunoblotting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A Sager
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Sarah J Backe
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Len Neckers
- Urologic Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mark R Woodford
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Mehdi Mollapour
- Department of Urology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA.
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