The factors related with postoperative complications in benign nodular thyroid surgery

Italian Guidelines for the Management of Non-Functioning Benign and Locally Symptomatic Thyroid Nodules

AIM

This guideline (GL) is aimed at providing a reference for the management of non-functioning, benign thyroid nodules causing local symptoms in adults outside of pregnancy.

METHODS

This GL has been developed following the methods described in the Manual of the National Guideline System. For each question, the panel appointed by Associazione Medici Endocrinology (AME) identified potentially relevant outcomes, which were then rated for their impact on therapeutic choices. Only outcomes classified as "critical" and "important" were considered in the systematic review of evidence and only those classified as "critical" were considered in the formulation of recommendations.

RESULTS

The present GL contains recommendations about the respective roles of surgery and minimally invasive treatments for the management of benign symptomatic thyroid nodules. We suggest hemithyroidectomy plus isthmectomy as the first-choice surgical treatment, provided that clinically significant disease is not present in the contralateral thyroid lobe. Total thyroidectomy should be considered for patients with clinically significant disease in the contralateral thyroid lobe. We suggest considering thermo-ablation as an alternative option to surgery for patients with a symptomatic, solid, benign, single, or dominant thyroid nodule. These recommendations apply to outpatients, either in primary care or when referred to specialists.

CONCLUSION

The present GL is directed to endocrinologists, surgeons, and interventional radiologists working in hospitals, in territorial services, or private practice, general practitioners, and patients. The available data suggest that the implementation of this GL recommendations will result in the progressive reduction of surgical procedures for benign thyroid nodular disease, with a decreased number of admissions to surgical departments for non-malignant conditions and more rapid access to patients with thyroid cancer. Importantly, a reduction of indirect costs due to long-term replacement therapy and the management of surgical complications may also be speculated.

Features of Cytologically Indeterminate Molecularly Benign Nodules Treated With Surgery

BACKGROUND

Most cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules (ITNs) with benign molecular testing are not surgically removed. The data on clinical outcomes of these nodules are limited.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed all ITNs where molecular testing was performed either with the Afirma gene expression classifier or Afirma gene sequencing classifier between 2011 and 2018 at a single institution.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight out of 289 molecularly benign ITNs were ultimately resected. The most common reason for surgery was compressive symptoms (39%). In multivariable modeling, patients aged <40 years, nodules ≥3 cm, presence of an Afirma suspicious nodule other than the index nodule, and compressive symptoms were associated with higher surgery rates with hazard ratios for surgery of 3.5 (P < 0.001), 3.2 (P < 0.001), 16.8 (P < 0.001), and 7.31 (P < 0.001), respectively. Of resected nodules, 5 were malignant. False-negative rate (FNR) was 1.7%, presuming all unresected nodules were truly benign and 13.2% restricting analysis to resected cases. The FNR was significantly higher in nodules with a high-risk sonographic appearance for cancer (American Thyroid Association high-risk classification and American College of Radiology Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data Systems score of 5) compared with nodules with all other sonographic categories (11.8% vs 1.1%; P = 0.03 and 11.1% vs 1.1%; P = 0.02, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Younger age, larger nodule size, presence of an Afirma suspicious nodule other than the index nodule, and compressive symptoms were associated with a higher rate of surgery. The FNR of benign Afirma was significantly higher in nodules with high-risk sonographic features.

Prefabricated Cervical Skin Flaps for Hemi-Facial Resurfacing: Elucidating the Natural History of Postoperative Edema Using Indocyanine Green

BACKGROUND

The increases in capillary wall permeability and capillary hydrostatic pressure are considered to be the causes for the acute swelling seen in flaps; however, disruption of the circulating flap lymphatics could be another contributory factor. In this study we monitor the development of flap edema in a series of 18 prefabricated flaps and aim to delineate the natural history of this phenomenon by use of lymphography.

METHODS

Postoperative swelling was monitored in a series of 18 pre-expanded prefabricated cervical skin flaps used for hemi-facial burns-scar resurfacing. Time to spontaneous resolution, presence or absence of venous congestion, and clinical outcome were recorded. In two cases, indocyanine-green (ICG) lymphography was used to monitor the dermal backflow pattern until swelling had completely resolved. Average moving velocity of ICG after injection as well as flap thickness was also recorded over the follow-up period.

RESULTS

The average moving velocity of ICG in the flap lymphatics improved from 0.48 cm/min to 1.5 cm/min in the first 12 days after flap transfer. The dermal backflow pattern was stardust in the first 12 days, indicating moderate lymphedema, transforming to splash from week three, and a robust collecting lymphatic vessel occurring from the fifth month, indicating mild lymphedema and lymphatic channel recovery, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Transient swelling was observed in all prefabricated flaps in our series. We postulate that this is mostly secondary to lymphatic disruption that subsides as lymphangiogenesis takes place. ICG lymphography is an inexpensive, safe, and easy-to-use imaging technology that could be used in the monitoring of postoperative lymphedema seen in prefabricated flaps.

Routine exposure of recurrent laryngeal nerve in thyroid surgery can prevent nerve injury

To determine the value of dissecting the recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroid surgery with respect to preventing recurrent laryngeal nerve injury, we retrospectively analyzed clinical data from 5 344 patients undergoing thyroidectomy. Among these cases, 548 underwent dissection of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, while 4 796 did not. There were 12 cases of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury following recurrent laryngeal nerve dissection (injury rate of 2.2%) and 512 cases of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury in those not undergoing nerve dissection (injury rate of 10.7%). This difference remained statistically significant between the two groups in terms of type of thyroid disease, type of surgery, and number of surgeries. Among the 548 cases undergoing recurrent laryngeal nerve dissection, 128 developed anatomical variations of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (incidence rate of 23.4%), but no recurrent laryngeal nerve injury was found. In addition, the incidence of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury was significantly lower in patients with the inferior parathyroid gland and middle thyroid veins used as landmarks for locating the recurrent laryngeal nerve compared with those with the entry of the recurrent laryngeal nerve into the larynx as a landmark. These findings indicate that anatomical variations of the recurrent laryngeal nerve are common, and that dissecting the recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroid surgery is an effective means of preventing nerve injury.

The calcium-phosphate balance, modulation of thyroid autoimmune processes and other adverse effects connected with thyroid arterial embolization

In search of new treatment options for thyroid diseases, when conventional procedures are ineffective, contraindicated or associated with serious side effects, safety of thyroid arteries embolization in the treatment of particular thyroid diseases was evaluated. The study included eight subjects with retrosternal toxic goiter, six patients affected by Graves' disease, five cases of retrosternal non-toxic goiter, two subjects with post-amiodarone hyperthyroidism, and one patient with severe thyroid-related orbitopathy, who underwent selective embolization of thyroid arteries. The study assessed and compared calcium-phosphate balance, modulation of thyroid autoimmunity and the presence of different side effects in patients who underwent the procedure. In addition, the serum concentrations of thyroid hormones, anti-thyroid autoantibodies and thyroid volume have been measured. Five of all enrolled subjects (22.7 %) experienced transient, not clinically relevant hypocalcaemia with no need for calcium supplementation. There were no significant changes in serum calcium levels in patients after embolization of both inferior thyroid arteries. The transient side effects associated with the treatment were neck pain and a slight increase in body temperature. Noted high concentration of free thyroid hormones immediately after the procedure was not accompanied by worsening of symptoms or signs of thyrotoxicosis. In patients with Graves' disease, a significant decrease in thyrotropin receptor antibodies level was observed. Thyroid arterial embolization does not disturb permanently calcium-phosphate balance, modulates positively thyroid autoimmune processes and is associated with no serious post-procedure side effects. Hence, it may be considered as a safe and effective treatment modality for selected thyroid disorders.

Unilateral thyroidectomy for the treatment of benign multinodular goiter

BACKGROUND

Benign multinodular goiter (MNG) is one of the most commonly treated thyroid disorders. Although bilateral resection is the accepted surgical treatment for bilateral MNG, the appropriate surgical resection for unilateral MNG continues to be debated. Bilateral resection generally has lower recurrence rates but higher complication rates than unilateral resection. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to define the recurrence and complication rates of unilateral and bilateral resections to determine the appropriate intervention for patients with unilateral, benign MNG.

METHODS

We reviewed a prospectively maintained database of all patients who underwent a thyroidectomy for treatment of benign MNG at a single institution between May 1994 and December 2011. All patients with bilateral MNG were treated with bilateral resection. Surgical treatment for unilateral MNG was determined by surgeon preference, with all but one surgeon opting for unilateral resection to treat unilateral MNG. Data were reported as means ± standard error of the mean. Chi-squared analysis was used to determine statistical significance at a level of P < 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 683 patients underwent thyroidectomy for MNG. Of these patients, 420 (61%) underwent unilateral resection and 263 patients (39%) underwent total thyroidectomy. The mean age was 52 ± 17 y, and 542 patients (79%) were female. The mean follow-up time was 46.1 ± 1.9 mo. The rate of recurrent disease was similar between unilateral (2%, n = 10) and bilateral (1%, n = 3) resections (P = 0.248). Unilateral resection patients had a lower total complication rate than patients with bilateral resections (8% versus 26%, P < 0.001); however, there was no difference in the rate of permanent complications (0.2% versus 1%, P = 0.133). Thyroid hormone replacement was rare in unilateral resection patients but necessary in all patients with bilateral resection (19% versus 100%, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients that had unilateral resections endured less overall morbidities than those who had bilateral resections, and their risk of recurrent disease was similar. They were also significantly less likely to require lifelong hormone replacement therapy postoperatively. Although bilateral resection remains the recommended treatment for bilateral MNG, these data strongly support the use of unilateral thyroidectomy for the treatment of unilateral, benign MNG.

"Mystic" transient recurrent nerve palsy after thyroid surgery

BACKGROUND

The mechanism of transient recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) palsy remains unclear.

METHODS

Samples were harvested from the RLN adjacent thyroid capsule and perineural fascia during 223 lobectomies and 89 RLNs from cadavers were used for histologic and immunohistologic evaluation. Intraoperative chromoendoscopic features of the RLN were compared with postoperative ear, nose, and throat examinations.

RESULTS

Those nerves that macroscopically seem to be single-branched (35 of 89 = 39.3%), microscopically consist of multiple fascicles in most of the cases (23 of 35 = 65.7%), resembling a plexus more than a single cord. Chronic lymphocytic infiltration of the thyroid capsule adjacent to the RLN was present in 29% (65 of 223) of the cases. The perineural fascia showed lymphocytic (18 of 223 = 8.1%) or granulocytic (7 of 223 = 3.1%) infiltration.

CONCLUSIONS

The origin of transient RLN palsy is multifactorial: plexus shaped microscopic nerve structure with or without branches, frame-like adventitial tissue, variable epineurium, inflammatory changes that involve not only the thyroid capsule but the perineural fascia, resultant nerve edema, and diffuse microhemorrhages by injury of fragile capillaries.