Case Report: Implications of Doing Research on Socially Assistive Robots in Real Homes

Closing the loop in minimally supervised human-robot interaction: formative and summative feedback

Human instructors fluidly communicate with hand gestures, head and body movements, and facial expressions, but robots rarely leverage these complementary cues. A minimally supervised social robot with such skills could help people exercise and learn new activities. Thus, we investigated how nonverbal feedback from a humanoid robot affects human behavior. Inspired by the education literature, we evaluated formative feedback (real-time corrections) and summative feedback (post-task scores) for three distinct tasks: positioning in the room, mimicking the robot's arm pose, and contacting the robot's hands. Twenty-eight adults completed seventy-five 30-s-long trials with no explicit instructions or experimenter help. Motion-capture data analysis shows that both formative and summative feedback from the robot significantly aided user performance. Additionally, formative feedback improved task understanding. These results show the power of nonverbal cues based on human movement and the utility of viewing feedback through formative and summative lenses.

Assimilation of socially assistive robots' by older adults: an interplay of uses, constraints and outcomes

By supporting autonomy, aging in place, and wellbeing in later life, Socially Assistive Robots are expected to help humanity face the challenges posed by the rapid aging of the world's population. For the successful acceptance and assimilation of SARs by older adults, it is necessary to understand the factors affecting their Quality Evaluations Previous studies examining Human-Robot Interaction in later life indicated that three aspects shape older adults' overall QEs of robots: uses, constraints, and outcomes. However, studies were usually limited in duration, focused on acceptance rather than assimilation, and typically explored only one aspect of the interaction. In the present study, we examined uses, constraints, and outcomes simultaneously and over a long period. Nineteen community-dwelling older adults aged 75-97 were given a SAR for physical training for 6 weeks. Their experiences were documented via in-depth interviews conducted before and after the study period, short weekly telephone surveys, and reports produced by the robots. Analysis revealed two distinct groups: (A) The 'Fans' - participants who enjoyed using the SAR, attributed added value to it, and experienced a successful assimilation process; and (B) The 'Skeptics' - participants who did not like it, negatively evaluated its use, and experienced a disappointing assimilation process. Despite the vast differences between the groups, both reported more positive evaluations of SARs at the end of the study than before it began. Overall, the results indicated that the process of SARs' assimilation is not homogeneous and provided a profound understanding of the factors shaping older adults' QE of SARs following actual use. Additionally, the findings demonstrated the theoretical and practical usefulness of a holistic approach in researching older SARs users.

Say what you want, I’m not listening!

We present a conversational social robot behaviour design that draws from psychotherapy research to support individual self-reflection and wellbeing, without requiring the robot to parse or otherwise understand what the user is saying. This simplicity focused approached enabled us to intersect the well-being aims with privacy and simplicity, while achieving high robustness. We implemented a fully autonomous and standalone (not network enabled) prototype and conducted a proof-of-concept study as an initial step to test the feasibility of our behaviour design: whether people would successfully engage with our simple behaviour and could interact meaningfully with it. We deployed our robot unsupervised for 48 h into the homes of 14 participants. All participants engaged with self-reflection with the robot without reporting any interaction challenges or technical issues. This supports the feasibility of our specific behaviour design, as well as the general viability of our non-parsing simplicity approach to conversation, which we believe to be an exciting avenue for further exploration. Our results thus pave the way for further exploring how conversational behaviour designs like ours may support people living with loneliness.

Socially Assistive Devices in Healthcare-a Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence from an Ethical Perspective

Socially assistive devices such as care robots or companions have been advocated as a promising tool in elderly care in Western healthcare systems. Ethical debates indicate various challenges. An important part of the ethical evaluation is to understand how users interact with these devices and how interaction influences users' perceptions and their ability to express themselves. In this review, we report and critically appraise findings of non-comparative empirical studies with regard to these effects from an ethical perspective.Electronic databases and other sources were queried using a comprehensive search strategy generating 9851 records. Studies were screened independently by two authors. Methodological quality of studies was assessed. For 22 reports on 21 datasets using a non-comparative design a narrative synthesis was performed.Data shows positive findings in regard to attitudes and emotional reactions of users. Varying perception of a social relation and social presence are the most commonly observed traits of interaction. Users struggle with understanding technical complexities while functionality of the devices is limited. This leads to a behavioral alignment of users towards the requirements of the devices to be able to make use of them.This evidence adds to three important ethical debates on the use of socially assistive devices in healthcare in regard to (1) reliability of existing empirical evidence to inform normative judgements, (2) ethical significance of the social presence of devices and (3) user autonomy in regard to behavioral alignment.

Human-Robot Interaction in Groups: Methodological and Research Practices

Understanding the behavioral dynamics that underline human-robot interactions in groups remains one of the core challenges in social robotics research. However, despite a growing interest in this topic, there is still a lack of established and validated measures that allow researchers to analyze human-robot interactions in group scenarios; and very few that have been developed and tested specifically for research conducted in-the-wild. This is a problem because it hinders the development of general models of human-robot interaction, and makes the comprehension of the inner workings of the relational dynamics between humans and robots, in group contexts, significantly more difficult. In this paper, we aim to provide a reflection on the current state of research on human-robot interaction in small groups, as well as to outline directions for future research with an emphasis on methodological and transversal issues.

Robocalypse? Yes, Please! The Role of Robot Autonomy in the Development of Ambivalent Attitudes Towards Robots

Attitudes towards robots are not always unequivocally positive or negative: when attitudes encompass both strong positive and strong negative evaluations about an attitude object, people experience an unpleasant state of evaluative conflict, called ambivalence. To shed light on ambivalence towards robots, we conducted a mixed-methods experiment with N = 163 German university students that investigated the influence of robot autonomy on robot-related attitudes. With technological progress, robots become increasingly autonomous. We hypothesized that high levels of robot autonomy would increase both positive and negative robot-related evaluations, resulting in more attitudinal ambivalence. We experimentally manipulated robot autonomy through text vignettes and assessed objective ambivalence (i.e., the amount of reported conflicting thoughts and feelings) and subjective ambivalence (i.e., self-reported experienced conflict) towards the robot ‘VIVA’ using qualitative and quantitative measures. Autonomy did not impact objective ambivalence. However, subjective ambivalence was higher towards the robot high versus low in autonomy. Interestingly, this effect turned non-significant when controlling for individual differences in technology commitment. Qualitative results were categorized by two independent raters into assets (e.g., assistance, companionship) and risks (e.g., privacy/data security, social isolation). Taken together, the present research demonstrated that attitudes towards robots are indeed ambivalent and that this ambivalence might influence behavioral intentions towards robots. Moreover, the findings highlight the important role of technology commitment. Finally, qualitative results shed light on potential users’ concerns and aspirations. This way, these data provide useful insights into factors that facilitate human–robot research.

Expect the Unexpected: Leveraging the Human-Robot Ecosystem to Handle Unexpected Robot Failures

Unexpected robot failures are inevitable. We propose to leverage socio-technical relations within the human-robot ecosystem to support adaptable strategies for handling unexpected failures. The Theory of Graceful Extensibility is used to understand how characteristics of the ecosystem can influence its ability to respond to unexpected events. By expanding our perspective from Human-Robot Interaction to the Human-Robot Ecosystem, adaptable failure-handling strategies are identified, alongside technical, social and organizational arrangements that are needed to support them. We argue that robotics and HRI communities should pursue more holistic approaches to failure-handling, recognizing the need to embrace the unexpected and consider socio-technical relations within the human robot ecosystem when designing failure-handling strategies.

Development and usability evaluation of a bedside robot system for inpatients

BACKGROUND

Many inpatients become anxious or frightened about scheduled treatment processes, and medical staff do not have sufficient time to provide emotional support. The recent advancement of information and communications technology (ICT) and the use of artificial intelligence (AI), including robots, in the health care field is being put to the test.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop a bedside robot system to deliver information and provide emotional support to inpatients and to evaluate the usability and perceptions of the developed robot.

METHODS

The first stage was accomplished by deriving essential functions from the results of user demand surveys on robots and by implementing a prototype by mapping each essential function to the robot's hardware and software. For the second stage, the robot was assessed for usability and perceptions in a simulation center, a hospital-like environment, by 10 nurses, 10 inpatients, and family caregivers. Usability and perception were evaluated using the think-aloud method, a survey, and individual interviews.

RESULTS

Based on the usability evaluation, the perceived usefulness, ease of use, and satisfaction were 5.28 ± 1.27 points, 5.42 ± 1.55 points, and 5.27 ± 1.46 points out of 7, respectively. It was found that overall, the robot was positively perceived by participants. As a result of the qualitative data analysis, the participants perceived the robot as an object that had the positive effect of providing emotional support through communication.

CONCLUSIONS

The bedside robot in this study, which incorporated human-robot interaction (HRI) technology, is an alternative suited to the new normal era that will contribute to ensuring that patients have more self-directed hospital stays as well as emotional support through information delivery and communication.

Let's not be indifferent about robots: Neutral ratings on bipolar measures mask ambivalence in attitudes towards robots

Ambivalence, the simultaneous experience of both positive and negative feelings about one and the same attitude object, has been investigated within psychological attitude research for decades. Ambivalence is interpreted as an attitudinal conflict with distinct affective, behavioral, and cognitive consequences. In social psychological research, it has been shown that ambivalence is sometimes confused with neutrality due to the use of measures that cannot distinguish between neutrality and ambivalence. Likewise, in social robotics research the attitudes of users are often characterized as neutral. We assume that this is due to the fact that existing research regarding attitudes towards robots lacks the opportunity to measure ambivalence. In the current experiment (N = 45), we show that a neutral and a robot stimulus were evaluated equivalently when using a bipolar item, but evaluations differed greatly regarding self-reported ambivalence and arousal. This points to attitudes towards robots being in fact highly ambivalent, although they might appear neutral depending on the measurement method. To gain valid insights into people’s attitudes towards robots, positive and negative evaluations of robots should be measured separately, providing participants with measures to express evaluative conflict instead of administering bipolar items. Acknowledging the role of ambivalence in attitude research focusing on robots has the potential to deepen our understanding of users’ attitudes and their potential evaluative conflicts, and thus improve predictions of behavior from attitudes towards robots.

[Autonomous assitive robots for older people at home: An exploratory study : "He is always there for me-and I for him too"]

The use of autonomous assistive robots in the domestic environment of old people and the possible effects on the quality of life is a relatively new field of research. Given the relatively limited technical robustness of these robots, autonomous assistive robots have only rarely been tested in real life situations; therefore, valid data in this field are very limited. This article reports on one of these rare exploratory trials in the domestic setting and examines the following questions: will people older than 60 years perceive living with an autonomous robot as a benefit or a burden? What impact could assistive robots have on the quality of life and loneliness? To explore the socioscientific aspects of these research questions, an autonomous robot was developed for use in private homes. The robot can move and approach people independently and accompany them through their daily lives. The robot was tested in 20 households of older people over 5 days without surveillance by members of the project. This evaluation investigated how old people experienced the robot in their homes and what effect it had on their daily routine and quality of life. The predominantly qualitative results demonstrated that the autonomous assistive SYMPARTNER robot was primarily received positively and it was considered to improve participants' daily life and mitigate the negative effects of living alone. The presented findings were derived from the 3‑year project "SYMPARTNER" (2016-2019) funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).

Implementation of robotic devices in nursing care. Barriers and facilitators: an integrative review

BACKGROUND

Robots in healthcare are gaining increasing attention; however, their implementation is challenging due to the complexity of both interventions themselves and the contexts in which they are implemented. The objective of this integrative review is to identify barriers to and facilitators of the implementation of robotic systems in nursing.

METHODS

Articles published from 2002 to 2019 reporting on projects to implement robotic devices in nursing care were searched on Medline (via PubMed), CINAHL and databases on funded research projects (Community Research and Development Information Services and Technische Informationsbibliothek) and in journals for robotic research in November 2017 and July 2019 for an update. No restrictions regarding study designs were imposed. All included articles underwent quality assessments with design-specific critical appraisal tools. Barriers to and facilitators of implementation were classified using the Context and Implementation of Complex Interventions framework.

RESULTS

After removing all duplicates, the search revealed 11 204 studies, of which 17 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the synthesis. The majority of the studies dealt with the implementation of robots designed to support individuals, either living at home or in nursing homes (n=11). The studies were conducted in Europe, the USA and New Zealand and were carried out in nursing homes, individual living environments, hospital units and laboratories. The quality of reporting and quality of evidence were low in most studies. The most frequently reported barriers were in socioeconomic and ethical domains and were within the implementation outcomes domain. The most frequently reported facilitators were related to the sociocultural context, implementation process and implementation strategies.

DISCUSSION

This review identified barriers to and facilitators of the implementation of robotic devices in nursing within different dimensions. The results serve as a basis for the development of suitable implementation strategies to reduce potential barriers and promote the integration of elements to facilitate implementation.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42018073486.

Perspectives on usability and accessibility of an autonomous humanoid robot living with elderly people

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess how cohabitation with a social robot for seven days night and day is perceived by elderly potential users and to suggest technological improvements for future home integration.

METHODS

Fifteen participants were invited to interact with Pepper^®, 24 h a day and 7 days a week. Perceived utility assessment was achieved using a dedicated questionnaire. Usability assessment was carried out by measuring satisfaction with the human-robot interaction and listing malfunctions.

RESULTS

Seventy-eight tasks out of 115 tasks were reported respectively as very high and high. On day 1, satisfaction was at its higher level with a mean of 6.8. On day 8, it maintained at 6.0 despite technical malfunctions and failures, listed with details in this paper. Acceptability was positive. Pepper was mainly considered as an assistant and a link with family and friends and never as an enemy or intruder. Pepper has proven to be potentially able to meet five needs: making the person's environment safe by alerting contact persons, reminding the user of health-related tasks, enabling "doubt removal", maintaining social relationships and following the user.

CONCLUSIONS

Pepper is more than a "demonstration" device classified as level 6 of the nine-point Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale for the hard and software and level 5 in behavioural terms. Once the technological locks and malfunctions have been overcome, Pepper should be applicable in the home, allowing users to test it in a more familiar environment.Implications for RehabilitationPepper, a humanoid robot, has been perceived as rich in potentialities that can help and secure a fragile person.Following this experience of cohabitation with a humanoid robot, the participants were unanimous in thinking that assistive robotics is the future.To be useful, the robot's people tracking function must inevitably be improved.Pepper, the first humanoid robot ever marketed, is more than just a "demonstration"device, classified at level 6 of Technological Readiness Levels (TRL) for supporting hardware and software and level 5 in terms of behavior.

Towards a Holistic Approach to Studying Human-Robot Interaction in Later Life

Background and Objectives

Implementation of robotics technology in eldercare depends on successful human-robot interaction (HRI). Relying on a systematic literature review, this article proposes a holistic approach to the study of such interaction.

Research Design and Methods

A literature search was carried out in five databases. A Boolean phrase search included the term robot and at least one term referencing older age, leading to an initial corpus of 543 articles. Articles were included in this review if they described older adults' interaction with robots. Exclusion of articles that did not meet this criterion, as well as duplicate material, led to a total of 80 articles, that were then subjected to quantitative and qualitative analyses.

Results

Studies tended to focus on older users, typically community-dwelling adults, without sufficient consideration of the users' characteristics and the physical, social, and cultural context of the HRI. Using a variety of methods, many studies were snapshot inquiries. The chief topics explored were use patterns, the resulting outcomes thereof and factors that constrain use. Commonly, however, these topics were examined separately. In addition, most studies lacked any theoretical framework.

Discussion and Implications

Additional studies are needed to more fully understand what makes HRI successful. The model presented here suggests scholars to conduct theory-driven research, and distinguish among various segments of older users, different types of robots, and group and individual HRI. It also proposes paying greater attention to the users' cultural, physical and social environment, and application of longitudinal and simultaneous examination of uses, outcomes, and constraints.

Views of nurses and other health and social care workers on the use of assistive humanoid and animal-like robots in health and social care: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Robots are introduced in many health and social care settings.

OBJECTIVES

To provide an overview of the existing evidence related to the views of nurses and other health and social care workers about the use of assistive humanoid and animal-like robots.

METHODS

Using the Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines we searched MEDLINE, PUBMED, CINHAL, EMBASE, PsycInfo, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore digital library. Nineteen (19) articles met the criteria for inclusion.

RESULTS

Health care workers reported mixed views regarding the use of robots. They considered an array of tasks that robots could perform; they addressed the issue of patient safety and raised concerns about privacy.

CONCLUSIONS

A limited number of studies have explored the views of health care workers about the use of robots. Considering the fast pace with which technology is advancing in the care field, it is critical to conduct more research in this area. Impact Statement: Robots will increasingly have a role to play in nursing, health and social care. The potential impact will be challenging for the healthcare workforce. It is therefore important for nurses and other health and social care workers to engage in discussion regarding the contribution of robots and their impact not only on nursing care but also on future roles of health and social care workers.