Innovation and Trends in Probiotic Microencapsulation by Emulsification Techniques

Dual Biopolymer Layer Using Nanoparticles with Active Substance Enclosed in Microcapsules: Innovative Solution for Slow Release of Ginkgo biloba L. Extract for Potential Therapies

The dynamic development of various branches of medicine and pharmacy, along with the emergence of new preventive and alternative therapies for various diseases, creates opportunities for new solutions utilizing carriers of active substances. Their therapeutic effect may occur through direct contact with skin lesions or indirectly, where medicinal substances penetrate the capillary network in the deeper layers of the skin and reach the bloodstream. The aim of the research was to obtain carriers with a matrix consisting of two renewable-source polymers (chitosan and ethylcellulose) and a core material derived from Ginkgo biloba green leaf extract (GBE). The obtained ethylcellulose microcapsules with encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles with extract {Et[Ch(GB)NP]} were characterized with respect to size, shape, surface morphology (SEM microscopy), and active substance release kinetics (UV-VIS and mathematical release models). The kinetics of active substance release were analyzed using UV-VIS spectroscopy and mathematical release models. The released active components were assessed microbiologically for activity against six bacterial strains and two fungal strains, as well as chromatographically using HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS fingerprinting. The microcapsules with a dual polymer layer exhibited a slow release of the core material, which demonstrated microbiological activity. The strongest antimicrobial effects were observed against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella enteritidis, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 410 µg/mL. The release of the core material from the double-layer polymer structures was more efficient in a physiological saline environment, with the best fit for the extract release kinetics following a zero-order model (regression coefficient R2 = 0.9939). The obtained microcapsules with a dual polymer layer show great potential for therapeutic applications in the medical industry. Their controlled release properties and antibacterial effectiveness make them a promising carrier for active substances in modern therapies.

Recent advances in fucoidan-based improved delivery systems: Structure, carrier types and biomedical applications

Consumer demand for nutritional supplements has fueled the rapid growth of the functional food market. However, ensuring the stability of functional factors in harsh environments remains a major challenge. The development of encapsulation systems is regarded as an effective method for enhancing the stability of functional factors, encapsulation carriers can offer protection for these functional factors. However, the selection of materials remains a significant constraint in the construction of delivery systems. Therefore, developing new encapsulation materials is crucial for advancing delivery systems, preserving the stability of functional factors, and ensuring public health. Fucoidan, a sulfated marine polysaccharide, has garnered significant attention in the field of encapsulation due to its notable advantages, including its remarkable bioactivity, biocompatibility, and targeted binding properties. Fucoidan-improved delivery systems provide new strategies for encapsulation of functional factors. This review first describes the structure of fucoidan, its modification and lists the applications of modified fucoidan, and assesses its feasibility for enhancing delivery systems. Second, it summarizes several common encapsulation technologies and methods, and outlines various carrier types based on fucoidan. Finally, it elucidates recent advances in the biomedical applications of fucoidan-improved delivery systems. Notably, it also presents the challenges and future prospects of this promising field.

Double Emulsion Microencapsulation System for Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Using Pea Protein and Cellulose Nanocrystals

Microencapsulation using a double emulsion system can improve the viability of probiotic cells during storage and digestion. In this study, a double emulsion system WC/O/WF was designed to microencapsulate Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG using pea protein (PP) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) at various proportions, and the effect of their proportions on the stability and efficacy of the encapsulation system was studied. The double emulsions were prepared by a two-step emulsification process: the internal aqueous phase containing probiotic strain (WC) was homogenized into the oil phase (O), which was then homogenized into the external aqueous phase (WF) containing 15% wall materials with varying proportions of PP and CNCs [F1 (100:0), F2 (96:4), F3 (92:8), F4 (88:12), F5 (84:16), F6 (80:20)]. The incorporation of CNCs significantly lowered the average particle size and improved the stability of the emulsions. The encapsulation efficiency did not differ significantly across the tested formulations (63-68%). To check the effectiveness of the designed system, a simulated digestion study was conducted in two phases: gastric phase and intestinal phase. The double emulsion microencapsulation significantly improved the viability of encapsulated cells during digestion compared against free cells. Microscopic analysis along with assessment of protein hydrolysis of the double emulsions during the simulated digestion demonstrated a two-stage protection mechanism. This study presented promising results for employing a double emulsion system for the microencapsulation of probiotics and the potential of PP and CNCs in designing such systems.

Microencapsulation of Probiotics for Enhanced Stability and Health Benefits in Dairy Functional Foods: A Focus on Pasta Filata Cheese

Probiotics provide significant health benefits, but their viability is often compromised during production, storage, and passage through the gastrointestinal tract. These challenges hinder their effective incorporation into functional applications, particularly in dairy functional foods, in which factors such as acidity, oxygen exposure, and storage conditions negatively impact cell survival. The focus was on functional dairy foods, particularly on pasta filata cheeses. Indeed, the use of probiotics in pasta filata cheeses presents significant challenges due to the specific manufacturing processes, which encompass the application of high temperatures and other harsh conditions. These factors can adversely affect the viability and availability of probiotic microorganisms. However, microencapsulation has emerged as a promising solution, offering a protective barrier that enhances probiotic stability, improves survival rates, and facilitates targeted release in the gastrointestinal environment. This review examines the pivotal role of microencapsulation in stabilising probiotics for functional applications, emphasising its relevance in high-value food systems. Functional applications, including foods designed to offer essential nutritional benefits and promote host health, play a crucial role in disease prevention and immune system support, reducing the risk of infections and other physiological impairments. Key microencapsulation technologies are analysed, focusing on their benefits, limitations, and challenges related to scalability and industrial implementation. Additionally, this review discusses strategies to optimise formulations, ensure the sensory quality of final products, and explore future opportunities for expanding innovative applications that align with growing consumer demand for health-promoting solutions.

Probiotics Encapsulated via Biological Macromolecule for Neurological Therapy and Functional Food: A Review

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits to humans, offering significant potential for preventing and treating various diseases. Neurological disorders, driven by multifaceted factors and linked to high disability rates, have become a growing global concern, particularly in the context of an aging population. Recent studies emphasize a strong connection between dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and neurological disorders. Probiotics have emerged as promising therapeutic interventions due to their ability to modulate the gut microbiota and influence the production of key metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids and neurotransmitters, crucial for neurological health. However, probiotic viability is often compromised, limiting their therapeutic efficacy. We propose that developing high-activity probiotic formulations, coupled with innovative delivery strategies, holds considerable promise for advancing neurological treatments. Encapsulation systems have proven effective in enhancing probiotic stability and efficacy. This review discusses advances in probiotic delivery using biological macromolecule-based encapsulation, addressing key challenges in maintaining viability during production, storage, and digestion. It also highlights emerging delivery systems, such as microencapsulation, aimed at improving stability and therapeutic effectiveness. Additionally, the review explores the potential of functional foods enriched with probiotics for neurological health. Future research should explore clinical applications of encapsulated probiotics and support the development of functional foods to enhance neurological health.

Lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) protein concentrate conjugated with tannic acid improves the oxidative stability of W1/O/W2 emulsions loaded with beet by-product extract and linseed oil

For improving the oxidative stability of a polyunsaturated oil, we co-encapsulated polyphenols from a concentrated beet by-product extract (CEB) with linseed oil using W1/O/W2 emulsions produced through emulsification with dynamic membranes of tunable pore size (DMTS), a low-energy high-throughput emulsification technology. Emulsions were stabilized with lesser mealworm protein concentrate (LMPC) and with an LMPC-derived antioxidant emulsifier (LMPC conjugated to tannic acid (LMPC-TA)). Regarding productivity, values of transmembrane flux were high (above 100 m3 m-2 h-1), and of industrial interest. Regardless of the protein used, emulsions showed an encapsulation efficiency higher than 67.5 %, while droplet size (D4,3) was below 8.28 μm. All emulsions were physically stable for 16 days at 4 °C, while at 25 °C, those stabilized with LMPC-TA had a less pronounced increase in D4,3. In all cases, emulsions containing CEB and LMPC-TA inhibited oil oxidation, increasing the shelf life of the emulsions.

Advancements in xanthan gum: A macromolecule for encapsulating plant probiotic bacteria with enhanced properties

Plant probiotic bacteria (PPBs) have been shown to improve plant growth and health in sustainable agriculture. However, environmental restrictions and competition from native microflora necessitate the using an effective formulation. Encapsulating PPBs has emerged as an approach to enhance their viability and delivery to plants. Xanthan gum (XG), generated by Xanthomonas campestris, is an exo-polysaccharide known for its high viscosity. It can enhance the controlled release of microcapsules for the delivery of PPBs. Although XG has been used to encapsulate food probiotic bacteria, extending it to the agriculture field is an innovative idea. XG may be used in many soils due to its high water solubility and wide pH range. Enclosing probiotic bacteria into XG provides advantages, such as increased survival rate, controlled release, and improved plant efficacy. Additionally, utilizing XG in a co-carrier system alongside other biopolymers improves encapsulation effectiveness and optimizes their release properties. This review article focuses on the characteristics and uses of XG in agriculture. The document focuses on revealing the use of XG combined with other biopolymers in a co-carrier system. It also highlights XG's function in enhancing microcapsule stability and discusses the benefits of using XG as a component in a controlled release system.

Advances in oligosaccharides and polysaccharides with different structures as wall materials for probiotics delivery: A review

Probiotics are active microorganisms that are beneficial to the health of the host. However, probiotics are highly sensitive to the external environment, and are susceptible to a variety of factors that reduce their activity during production, storage, and use. Microencapsulation is an effective method that enhances probiotic activity. Macromolecules like polysaccharides, who classified as biologically active prebiotics, have attracted significant attention for their utility in probiotic microencapsulation. This article summarized the types of commonly used microencapsulation materials and their structural characteristics from the perspective of polysaccharides prebiotics. It also discussed recent advancements, probiotic-prebiotic microcapsule-based modulation of the immune system, as well as the associated limitations. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of eight prebiotics as microencapsulation wall materials. The honeycomb structure of β-glucan enhances the bioavailability of probiotics, while, fructooligosaccharide and galactooligosaccharides improve microbead structure to tightly encapsulate probiotics. The terminal reducing groups of isomaltooligosaccharides and the free hydroxyl groups in xylooligosaccharides also positively affect the structure of microcapsules. Prebiotics not only enhance the survival rate and biological activity of probiotics as embedding materials during storage, but also exert their own probiotic effects. Collectively, prebiotics holds great promise as microencapsulation materials for probiotics delivery.

Encapsulation of lactic acid bacteria in W1/O/W2 emulsions stabilized by mucilage:pectin complexes

Opuntia silvestri mucilage obtained from dried stems was explored as an emulsifier to prepare double emulsions aiming to encapsulate Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CIDCA 83114. W1/O/W2 emulsions were prepared using a two-step emulsification method. The aqueous phase (W1) consisted of L. plantarum CIDCA 83114, and the oil phase (O) of sunflower oil. The second emulsion was prepared by mixing the internal W1/O emulsion with the W2 phase, consisting of 4 % polysaccharides, formulated with different mucilage:(citric)pectin ratios. Their stability was assessed after preparation (day 0) and during storage at 4 °C (28 days). Determinations included creaming index, color, particle size, viscosity, turbidity, and bacterial viability, along with exposure to simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Significant differences were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's test (P < 0.05). After 28 days storage, bacterial viability in the W1/O/W2 emulsions was above 6 log CFU/mL for all the pectin:mucilage ratios. Emulsions containing mucilage and pectins showed lower creaming indices after 15 days, remaining stable until the end of the storage period. Formulations including 1:1 pectin:mucilage ratio exhibited the highest bacterial viability under simulated gastrointestinal conditions and were more homogeneous in terms of droplet size distributions at day 0, hinting at a synergistic effect between mucilage components (e.g., proteins, Ca2+) and pectin in stabilizing the emulsions. These results showed that Opuntia silvestri mucilage enhanced the stability of emulsions during refrigerated storage, highlighting its potential for encapsulating lactic acid bacteria. This presents an economical and natural alternative to traditional encapsulating materials.

Polyfunctional sugar-free white chocolate fortified with Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG co-encapsulated with beet residue extract (Beta vulgaris L.)

Chocolate is a worldwide consumed food. This study investigated the fortification of sugar-free white chocolate with Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG microcapsule co-encapsulated with beet residue extract. The chocolates were evaluated for moisture, water activity, texture, color properties, melting, physicochemical, and probiotic stability during storage. Furthermore, the survival of L. rhamnosus GG and the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds were investigated under in vitro simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Regarding the characterization of probiotic microcapsules, the encapsulation efficiency of L. rhamnosus GG was > 89 % while the encapsulation efficiency of phenolic compounds was > 62 %. Chocolates containing probiotic microcapsules were less hard and resistant to breakage. All chocolates had a similar melting behavior (endothermic peaks between 32.80 and 34.40 °C). After 120 days of storage at 4 °C, probiotic populations > 6.77 log CFU/g were detected in chocolate samples. This result demonstrates the potential of this matrix to carry L. rhamnosus GG cells. Regarding the resistance of probiotic strains during gastric simulation, the co-encapsulation of L. rhamnosus GG with beet extract contributed to high counts during gastrointestinal transit, reaching the colon (48 h) with viable cell counts equal to 11.80 log CFU/g. Finally, one of our main findings was that probiotics used phenolic compounds as a substrate source, which may be an observed prebiotic effect.

Drying of probiotics to enhance the viability during preparation, storage, food application, and digestion: A review

Functional food products containing viable probiotics have become increasingly popular and demand for probiotic ingredients that maintain viability and stability during processing, storage, and gastrointestinal digestions. This has resulted in heightened research and development of powdered probiotic ingredients. The aim of this review is to overview the development of dried probiotics from upstream identification to downstream applications in food. Free probiotic bacteria are susceptible to various environmental stresses during food processing, storage, and after ingestion, necessitating additional materials and processes to preserve their activity for delivery to the colon. Various classic and emerging thermal and nonthermal drying technologies are discussed for their efficiency in preparing dehydrated probiotics, and strategies for enhancing probiotic survival after dehydration are highlighted. Both the formulation and drying technology can influence the microbiological and physical properties of powdered probiotics that are to be characterized comprehensively with various techniques. Furthermore, quality control during probiotic manufacturing and strategies of incorporating powdered probiotics into liquid and solid food products are discussed. As emerging technologies, structure-design principles to encapsulate probiotics in engineered structures and protective materials with improved survivability are highlighted. Overall, this review provides insights into formulations and drying technologies required to supplement viable and stable probiotics into functional foods, ensuring the retention of their health benefits upon consumption.

Advances in polysaccharides for probiotic delivery: Properties, methods, and applications

Probiotics are essential to improve the health of the host, whereas maintaining the viability of probiotics in harsh environments remains a challenge. Polysaccharides have non-toxicity, excellent biocompatibility, and outstanding biodegradability, which can protect probiotics by forming a physical barrier and show a promising prospect for probiotic delivery. In this review, we summarize polysaccharides commonly used for probiotic microencapsulation and introduce the microencapsulation technologies, including extrusion, emulsion, spray drying, freeze drying, and electrohydrodynamics. We discuss strategies for better protection of probiotics and introduce the applications of polysaccharides-encapsulated probiotics in functional food, oral formulation, and animal feed. Finally, we propose the challenges of polysaccharides-based delivery systems in industrial production and application. This review will help provide insight into the advances and challenges of polysaccharides in probiotic delivery.

Beneficial Bacteria Isolated from Food in Relation to the Next Generation of Probiotics

Recently, probiotics are increasingly being used for human health. So far, only lactic acid bacteria isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract were recommended for human use as probiotics. However, more authors suggest that probiotics can be also isolated from unconventional sources, such as fermented food products of animal and plant origin. Traditional fermented products are a rich source of microorganisms, some of which may have probiotic properties. A novel category of recently isolated microorganisms with great potential of health benefits are next-generation probiotics (NGPs). In this review, general information of some "beneficial microbes", including NGPs and acetic acid bacteria, were presented as well as essential mechanisms and microbe host interactions. Many reports showed that NGP selected strains and probiotics from unconventional sources exhibit positive properties when it comes to human health (i.e., they have a positive effect on metabolic, human gastrointestinal, neurological, cardiovascular, and immune system diseases). Here we also briefly present the current regulatory framework and requirements that should be followed to introduce new microorganisms for human use. The term "probiotic" as used herein is not limited to conventional probiotics. Innovation will undoubtedly result in the isolation of potential probiotics from new sources with fascinating new health advantages and hitherto unforeseen functionalities.

Application of Physical-Chemical Approaches for Encapsulation of Active Substances in Pharmaceutical and Food Industries

BACKGROUND

Encapsulation is a valuable method used to protect active substances and enhance their physico-chemical properties. It can also be used as protection from unpleasant scents and flavors or adverse environmental conditions.

METHODS

In this comprehensive review, we highlight the methods commonly utilized in the food and pharmaceutical industries, along with recent applications of these methods.

RESULTS

Through an analysis of numerous articles published in the last decade, we summarize the key methods and physico-chemical properties that are frequently considered with encapsulation techniques.

CONCLUSION

Encapsulation has demonstrated effectiveness and versatility in multiple industries, such as food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceuticals. Moreover, the selection of appropriate encapsulation methods is critical for the effective encapsulation of specific active compounds. Therefore, constant efforts are being made to develop novel encapsulation methods and coating materials for better encapsulation efficiency and to improve properties for specific use.

Membrane Emulsification as an Emerging Method for Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG® Encapsulation

Techniques capable of producing small-sized probiotic microcapsules with high encapsulation yields are of industrial and scientific interest. In this study, an innovative membrane emulsification system was investigated in the production of microcapsules containing Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG® (Lr), sodium alginate (ALG), and whey protein (WPI), rice protein (RPC), or pea protein (PPC) as encapsulating agents. The microcapsules were characterized by particle size distribution, optical microscopy, encapsulation yield, morphology, water activity, hygroscopicity, thermal properties, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and probiotic survival during in vitro simulation of gastrointestinal conditions. The innovative encapsulation technique resulted in microcapsules with diameters varying between 18 and 29 μm, and encapsulation yields > 93%. Combining alginate and whey, rice, or pea protein improved encapsulation efficiency and thermal properties. The encapsulation provided resistance to gastrointestinal fluids, resulting in high probiotic viability at the end of the intestinal phase (> 7.18 log CFU g-1). The proposed encapsulation technology represents an attractive alternative to developing probiotic microcapsules for future food applications.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11947-023-03099-w.

Microencapsulation of Probiotics by Oil-in-Water Emulsification Technique Improves Cell Viability under Different Storage Conditions

Probiotics are associated with health benefits to the host. However, their application can be limited due to a decrease in cell viability during processing, storage, and passage through the gastrointestinal tract. Microencapsulation is a simple and efficient alternative to improve the physical protection and stability of probiotics. The present study aimed to produce and characterize alginate or gelatin-based microparticles containing Lactobacillus acidophilus NRRL B-4495 or Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NRRL B-4496 by oil-in-water (O/W) emulsification and to evaluate the stability under storage conditions. The results showed that L. acidophilus and L. plantarum encapsulated in gelatin (LAEG and LPEG) presented diameters of 26.08 ± 1.74 μm and 21.56 ± 4.17 μm and encapsulation efficiencies of 89.6 ± 4.2% and 81.1 ± 9.7%, respectively. However, those encapsulated in alginate (LAEA and LPEA) showed an encapsulation efficiency of <1.0%. Furthermore, LAEG was stable for 120 days of storage at 5 °C and 25 °C. Therefore, encapsulation in gelatin by O/W emulsification is a promising strategy for protecting and stabilizing probiotic bacteria, enabling future application in foods.

Application of Pickering emulsions in probiotic encapsulation- A review

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits to host organisms when consumed in adequate amounts and are often incorporated into foods for human consumption. However, this has negative implications on their viability as large numbers of these beneficial bacteria are deactivated when subjected to harsh conditions during processing, storage, and passage through the gastrointestinal tract. To address these issues, numerous studies on encapsulation techniques to protect probiotics have been conducted. This review focuses on emulsion technology for probiotic encapsulation, with a special focus on Pickering emulsions. Pickering emulsions are stabilized by solid particles, which adsorb strongly onto the liquid-liquid interfaces to prevent aggregation. Pickering emulsions have demonstrated enhanced stability, high encapsulation efficiency, and cost-effectiveness compared to other encapsulation techniques. Additionally, Pickering emulsions are regarded as safe and biocompatible and utilize natural materials, such as cellulose and chitosan derived from plants, shellfish, and fungi, which may also be viewed as more acceptable in food systems than common synthetic and natural molecular surfactants. This article reviews the current status of Pickering emulsion use for probiotic delivery and explores the potential of this technique for application in other fields, such as livestock farming, pet food, and aquaculture.

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Probiotics play an important role in maintaining the health of humans and animals.

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Encapsulation improves probiotic viability in harsh environments.

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Probiotics can be encapsulated by many techniques such as emulsification.

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Pickering emulsions use particles instead of molecules to stabilize emulsions.

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Natural particles are more acceptable to some consumers than synthetic emulsifiers.