Analysis of cognitive abilities measured in a laboratory-controlled 360° simulation in soccer

The structure of executive functions in athletes: A latent variable approach

The role of executive function (EF) in expert sport performance has become a popular topic in sport and exercise psychology research. Research in this area often adopts the unity/diversity framework of EF (i.e., inhibition, shifting, and updating). However, recent investigations into the suitability of this unity/diversity model, and other competing models (e.g., the nested model of EF), has questioned whether this model is suitable for across all populations (e.g., athletes). The aim of the present study was to use confirmatory factor analysis to outline the most suitable EF model in a sample of athletes. In total, 131 participants with varying levels of athletic expertise completed two inhibition, shifting, and updating tasks. All analyses were performed in RStudio. The results revealed the nested model of EF provided the best fit to the data indicating its suitability for athletes. Acceptable fit was also found for the unity/diversity mode of EF. Overall, the results suggest that, despite recent criticism of the nested model and unity/diversity framework of EF, such structures appear to be suitable for use with athletic populations.

The Use of Extended Reality Technologies in Sport Perceptual-Cognitive Skill Research: A Systematic Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Extended Reality (XR) technologies, such as Virtual Reality (VR) and 360°VR are growing rapidly in the scientific literature and sporting practice. These have been used for a range of skills, particularly perceptual-cognitive skills. However, to our knowledge, there is no systematic scoping review on this topic identifying the current state of play of the research area by characteristics such as study type, technology type, or sport investigated, and such a review would help guide the future direction of this area. Therefore, this study aimed to systematically review the extent of XR technology in sport for assessing and training athletes' and officials' perceptual-cognitive skills.

METHODS

Electronic databases (SCOPUS, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO) were searched for relevant articles up until January 2024. Studies were included if they used XR technologies to assess or develop sport-specific, higher order perceptual-cognitive skills.

RESULTS

57 studies met the inclusion criteria for this review, of which 67% were published from 2020. Most studies conducted quantitative research designs, with 66% of studies adopting a cross-sectional assessment approach and 28% conducting an intervention to assess performance improvements. Decision-making was the most prevalent skill investigated, across 60% of studies. The most common technology was head mounted display (51%) presenting animated environments and the most common sports investigated were football and handball (32% and 19% of studies, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights a significant growth in the research exploring XR technologies in sport for perceptual-cognitive skill development and understanding, with most studies published in the last 4 years. Prominent technology types (e.g. animated HMD), perceptual-cognitive skills (e.g. decision making), study designs (e.g. quantitative assessment), and sports (e.g. football) are identified and discussed along with practical implications and future research.

KEY POINTS

Extended reality technologies for sports perceptual-cognitive skills is an emerging field, marked by key trends in the types of technology used and the perceptual-cognitive skills being studied. Decision-making is the most commonly studied perceptual-cognitive skill, and these technologies report to have high representativeness and engagement when being used. More research is required to explore the effectiveness of this technology through intervention study designs, and further understand how it can be used and the perceptual-cognitive processes through qualitative research designs.

Improvements in executive functions by domain-specific cognitive training in youth elite soccer players

This study examined the impact of sport-specific cognitive training (CT) on executive functions (EFs) in youth soccer players. Thirty-one athletes (13-15 years) participated, 13 in the intervention group (IG) and 18 in the control group (CG). The IG underwent an 8-week soccer-focused CT program, while the CG maintained regular training. The assessments included working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results revealed no significant improvements in EFs in the IG compared to those in the CG. Both groups showed enhanced cognitive flexibility, possibly due to general cognitive development or learning effects. The study suggested that an 8-week sport-specific CT may not enhance EFs in young soccer players, potentially due to a ceiling effect in highly skilled athletes. These findings should be considered when designing cognitive training programs for athletes, and future research could explore the optimal duration of such programs.

An assist for cognitive diagnostics in soccer (Part II): Development and validation of a task to measure working memory in a soccer-specific setting

Cognitive diagnostics is of increasing interest to researchers and practitioners in the context of talent identification and performance enhancement in professional soccer. Research addressing the relevance of cognitive skills for sports performance has been based on the cognitive component approach (i.e., general cognitive processes) and the expert performance approach (i.e., sport-specific cognitive processes). Following the aim to combine the strengths of both approaches, we have previously developed and validated tasks to measure inhibition and cognitive flexibility in a soccer-specific setting, including a soccer-specific motor response. In line with the broad consistency on three core executive functions, this further development of diagnosing executive functions is to be completed with a task for the assessment of working memory. For this purpose, 60 amateur players with a soccer experience of at least one competitive season (M _age = 25.95, SD _age = 4.59) first conducted a computer-based version of the n-back (3-back) task followed by a 3-back task that required a soccer-specific motor response (i.e., pass) performed in a soccer-specific setting (i.e., SoccerBot100). Results show good reliability for both tasks. With regard to convergent validity, significant correlations between the computerized and soccer-specific task could be determined in target trials for response time (r = 0.446) and accuracy (r = 0.401). Thus, the soccer-specific n-back task can be considered a potentially valid instrument for assessing working memory and potentially allows soccer clubs to diagnose the three core executive functions in a consistent soccer-specific setting.

The effectiveness of heat preparation and alleviation strategies for cognitive performance: A systematic review

A range of occupational and performance contexts (e.g. military personnel operations, emergency services, sport) require the critical maintenance of cognitive performance in environmentally challenging environments. Several reviews exist which evaluate the effectiveness of heat preparation strategies to facilitate physical performance. To date, no review has explored the usefulness of heat preparation strategies for cognitive performance. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to evaluate a range of interventions for the maintenance of cognitive performance, during or following active or passive heat exposure. Studies to be included were assessed by two authors reviewing title, abstract, and full-text. Forty articles were identified which met the inclusion criteria. Interventions were categorised into chronic (i.e. acclimation/acclimatisation) and acute strategies (i.e. hydration, cooling, supplementation, psychological). The results indicate that medium-term consecutive heat acclimation may mitigate some cognitive deficits under heat stress, although heat acclimation effectiveness could be influenced by age. Further, pre-cooling appears the most effective cooling method for maintaining cognitive performance under heat stress, although results were somewhat ambiguous. The hydration literature showed that the most effective hydration strategies were those which individualised electrolyte fortified fluid volumes to match for sweat loss. Limited research exploring psychological interventions indicates that motivational self-talk could be facilitative for maintaining cognitive skills following exercise in hot conditions. These findings can be used to help inform strategies for maintaining critical cognitive and decision-making skills in hot environments.

An Assist for Cognitive Diagnostics in Soccer: Two Valid Tasks Measuring Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility in a Soccer-Specific Setting With a Soccer-Specific Motor Response

In professional soccer, players, coaches, and researchers alike recognize the importance of cognitive skills. Research addressing the relevance of cognitive skills has been based on the cognitive component skills approach (i.e., general cognitive processes) or the expert performance approach (i.e., sport-specific cognitive processes). Our project aimed to combine the strengths of both approaches to develop and validate cognitive tasks measuring inhibition and cognitive flexibility in a soccer-specific setting with a soccer-specific motor response. In the main study 77 elite youth soccer players completed a computerized version of the standard flanker and number-letter tasks as well as flanker and number-letter tasks requiring a soccer-specific motor response (i.e., pass) in a soccer-specific setting (i.e., the SoccerBot360). Results show good reliability for both tasks. For the SoccerBot360 number-letter task, switch effects for response times and accuracy and acceptable convergent validity were shown. A flanker effect for response time but not accuracy was apparent. Due to no acceptable convergent validity, the flanker task was revised (i.e., adaptation of stimuli) and 63 adult soccer players participated in a follow-up validation study in the SoccerBot100. The revised flanker task showed the flanker effect for response time, but not for accuracy. However, acceptable convergent validity for response time was present. Thus, the soccer-specific number-letter and to some extent the soccer-specific flanker task show potential to be used as a valid cognitive diagnostic tool by soccer clubs.

Kognitionspsychologie im Fußball

Zusammenfassung. Anhand des Themas Kognitionspsychologie im Fußball ist es Ziel dieses Beitrags deutlich zu machen, warum es sinnvoll ist, dass Forschung und Praxis der Sportpsychologie und die entsprechenden Akteure integriert und eng zusammenarbeiten. Wir stellen konkrete Überlegungen vor, wie wir diesem Anspruch gerecht werden könnten und nehmen dabei auf ein aktuelles Projekt im Nachwuchsleistungsfußball Bezug. Dabei gehen wir zunächst auf ausgewählte theoretische Grundlagen der Kognitionspsychologie sowie empirische Befunde zur Rolle von Kognitionen und insbesondere der exekutiven Funktionen im Fußball ein, stellen dann Vorteile der Integration von Forschung und Praxis vor, um abschließend konkrete Anstöße zu einer möglichen Umsetzung einer verstärkten Integration von Forschung und Praxis zu geben.