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Molodtsova DV, Strádi A, Artamonov AA, Kurdanov HA, Konstantinova NA, Ivanov OG, Shurshakov VA, Inozemtsev KO. The microwave electromagnetic background as measured onboard the International Space Station. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2025; 45:1-6. [PMID: 40280631 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2025.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2024] [Revised: 01/09/2025] [Accepted: 01/14/2025] [Indexed: 04/29/2025]
Abstract
This paper presents an attempt to experimentally evaluate the actual radiofrequency exposure levels onboard the International Space Station in terms of absorbed energy (power) density, which is essential for the confirmation of manned space flight safety. The measurements were made with the use of compact stand-alone electromagnetic dosimeters, capable for recording the absorbed energy (power) density in the frequency band 0.8-8.0 GHz once per minute. As a result of experimental data analysis for two representative locations at the MLM module of the ISS, it is possible to establish that the absorbed energy (power) densities can reach the following levels: 0.7 nW/cm2 on average per day with maximal possible value of 119.8 nW/cm2 in the Crew cabin; and 1.4 nW/cm2 on average per day with maximal possible value of 207.8 nW/cm2 at Central post. Though the maximal exposure levels recommended for the ISS electromagnetic hardware in the similar frequency band aren't exceeded so far, the existing recommendations for the ISS electromagnetic hardware with frequencies above 8.0 GHz makes us believe such equipment can pose an excessive radiofrequency exposure in some of the locations at ISS, so the further experimental electromagnetic measurements are still necessary in the extended frequency band.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria V Molodtsova
- A.I. Burnazyan State Medical Biophysical Centre of the Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, 46 Zhivopisnaya st, 123098, Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrea Strádi
- HUN-REN Centre for Energy Research (HUN-REN EK), 29-33 Konkoly-Thege Miklós út, H-1121, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Anton A Artamonov
- Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), 76A Khoroshevskoye shosse, 123007, Moscow, Russia
| | - Husein A Kurdanov
- Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), 76A Khoroshevskoye shosse, 123007, Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalya A Konstantinova
- Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), 76A Khoroshevskoye shosse, 123007, Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg G Ivanov
- Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), 76A Khoroshevskoye shosse, 123007, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vyacheslav A Shurshakov
- Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), 76A Khoroshevskoye shosse, 123007, Moscow, Russia
| | - Konstantin O Inozemtsev
- Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), 76A Khoroshevskoye shosse, 123007, Moscow, Russia.
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Sandoval-Diez N, Belácková L, Fernandes Veludo A, Jalilian H, Guida F, Deltour I, Thielens A, Zahner M, Fröhlich J, Huss A, Röösli M. Determining the relationship between mobile phone network signal strength and radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure: protocol and pilot study to derive conversion functions. OPEN RESEARCH EUROPE 2025; 4:206. [PMID: 40291791 PMCID: PMC12032521 DOI: 10.12688/openreseurope.18285.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/25/2025] [Indexed: 04/30/2025]
Abstract
Mobile phones continuously monitor and evaluate indicators of the received signal strengths from surrounding base stations to optimise wireless services. These signal strength indicators (SSIs) offer the potential for assessing radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure on a population scale, as they can be related to exposure from both base stations and handset devices. Within the ETAIN (Exposure To electromAgnetic fields and plaNetary health) project, an open-access RF-EMF exposure app for smartphones, named "ETAIN 5G-Scientist", has been developed using citizen science. This paper delineates a measurement protocol for deriving formulas to convert the app SSIs into electric field values to estimate RF-EMF exposure. It presents pilot study results from measurements taken at four locations in France (FR), and 14 locations in the Netherlands (NL), using three different phone models and the most common network providers in each country. The measurements were conducted while executing different usage scenarios, such as calls or data transmission. The exposimeter ExpoM-RF4 and on-body electric field probes were used to measure exposure from far-field sources and the handset, respectively. Two-minute aggregates were considered the sample unit for analyses (n=891 in NL, n=395 in FR). Regression analyses showed a positive log-linear relationship between Long Term Evolution (LTE) Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and far-field RF-EMF exposure when aggregating data by location (coefficients for normalised RSSI: 0.91 [95% CI: 0.55 - 1.28] in FR, 1.09 [95% CI: 0.96 - 1.22] in NL). Negative log-linear trends were observed for handset-related RF-EMF exposure at the ear (-0.31 [95% CI: -0.46 - -0.16]) and chest (-0.20 [95% CI: -0.37 - -0.03]) during data transmission scenarios. These results demonstrate that the ETAIN 5G-Scientist app can be implemented for smartphone-based RF-EMF estimation. However, uncertainties in individual measurement points highlight the need for further data collection and analysis to improve the accuracy of exposure estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nekane Sandoval-Diez
- Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, 4123, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, 4001, Switzerland
| | - Lea Belácková
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, 3584, The Netherlands
| | - Adriana Fernandes Veludo
- Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, 4123, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, 4001, Switzerland
| | - Hamed Jalilian
- Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, 4123, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, 4001, Switzerland
| | - Florence Guida
- Environment and Lifestyle Epidemiology, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 69007, France
| | - Isabelle Deltour
- Environment and Lifestyle Epidemiology, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 69007, France
| | - Arno Thielens
- Ghent University, Ghent, Flanders, 9052, Belgium
- ASRC, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York City, 10031, USA
| | | | | | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, 3584, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Röösli
- Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, 4123, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, 4001, Switzerland
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Korkmaz E, Aerts S, Coesoij R, Bhatt CR, Velghe M, Colussi L, Land D, Petroulakis N, Spirito M, Bolte J. A comprehensive review of 5G NR RF-EMF exposure assessment technologies: fundamentals, advancements, challenges, niches, and implications. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 260:119524. [PMID: 38972338 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
This review offers a detailed examination of the current landscape of radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) assessment tools, ranging from spectrum analyzers and broadband field meters to area monitors and custom-built devices. The discussion encompasses both standardized and non-standardized measurement protocols, shedding light on the various methods employed in this domain. Furthermore, the review highlights the prevalent use of mobile apps for characterizing 5G NR radio network data. A growing need for low-cost measurement devices is observed, commonly referred to as "sensors" or "sensor nodes", that are capable of enduring diverse environmental conditions. These sensors play a crucial role in both microenvironmental surveys and individual exposures, enabling stationary, mobile, and personal exposure assessments based on body-worn sensors, across wider geographical areas. This review revealed a notable need for cost-effective and long-lasting sensors, whether for individual exposure assessments, mobile (vehicle-integrated) measurements, or incorporation into distributed sensor networks. However, there is a lack of comprehensive information on existing custom-developed RF-EMF measurement tools, especially in terms of measuring uncertainty. Additionally, there is a need for real-time, fast-sampling solutions to understand the highly irregular temporal variations EMF distribution in next-generation networks. Given the diversity of tools and methods, a comprehensive comparison is crucial to determine the necessary statistical tools for aggregating the available measurement data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdal Korkmaz
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Sam Aerts
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Coesoij
- Delft University of Technology, Department of Microelectronics, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, VIC 3085, Yallambie, Australia
| | - Maarten Velghe
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Loek Colussi
- Dutch Authority for Digital Infrastructure, 9700 AL, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Derek Land
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Nikolaos Petroulakis
- Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, 70013, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Marco Spirito
- Delft University of Technology, Department of Microelectronics, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - John Bolte
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Bhatt CR, Henderson S, Sanagou M, Brzozek C, Thielens A, Benke G, Loughran S. Micro-environmental personal radio-frequency electromagnetic field exposures in Melbourne: A longitudinal trend analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 251:118629. [PMID: 38490626 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A knowledge gap exists regarding longitudinal assessment of personal radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposures globally. It is unclear how the change in telecommunication technology over the years translates to change in RF-EMF exposure. This study aims to evaluate longitudinal trends of micro-environmental personal RF-EMF exposures in Australia. METHODS The study utilised baseline (2015-16) and follow-up (2022) data on personal RF-EMF exposure (88 MHz-6 GHz) measured across 18 micro-environments in Melbourne. Simultaneous quantile regression analysis was conducted to compare exposure data distribution percentiles, particularly median (P50), upper extreme value (P99) and overall exposure trends. RF-EMF exposures were compared across six exposure source types: mobile downlink, mobile uplink, broadcast, 5G-New Radio, Others and Total (of the aforementioned sources). Frequency-specific exposures measured at baseline and follow-up were compared. Total exposure across different groups of micro-environment types were also compared. RESULTS For all micro-environmental data, total (median and P99) exposure levels did not significantly change at follow-up. Overall exposure trend of total exposure increased at follow-up. Mobile downlink contributed the highest exposure among all sources showing an increase in median exposure and overall exposure trend. Of seven micro-environment types, five of them showed total exposure levels (median and P99) and overall exposure trend increased at follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie VIC 3085, Australia; Monash Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Stuart Henderson
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie VIC 3085, Australia.
| | - Masoumeh Sanagou
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie VIC 3085, Australia.
| | - Chris Brzozek
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie VIC 3085, Australia.
| | - Arno Thielens
- Photonics Initiative, Advanced Science and Research Center, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA.
| | - Geza Benke
- Monash Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Sarah Loughran
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie VIC 3085, Australia.
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McKenzie RJ, Iskra S, Knipe P. Assessment of radio frequency fields in the 2.45 GHz band produced by smart home devices. Bioelectromagnetics 2024; 45:184-192. [PMID: 38014861 DOI: 10.1002/bem.22492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes the assessment of the electromagnetic fields produced by consumer "smart" devices used to control and monitor everyday equipment and appliances in a modern "smart" home. The assessment is based on the careful measurement of fields produced by a range of such devices in a laboratory environment configured to operate in a condition simulating high user activity. All devices included in this study operate in the 2.4 GHz band utilizing either Wi-Fi or Bluetooth connectivity. Overall results indicate very low levels of electromagnetic fields for all IoT smart devices in terms of human exposure safety standards (typically much less than 1%) with very low duty cycles (also less than 1%) resulting in even lower time-averaged exposure levels. These low levels of exposure, along with rapid reduction of levels with distance from the devices, suggests that the cumulative effect of multiple devices in a "smart" home are not significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond J McKenzie
- School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Steve Iskra
- School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
- Global Networks and Technology, Telstra Corporation Ltd., Melbourne, Australia
| | - Phillip Knipe
- School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
- Total Radiation Solutions, Perth, Australia
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Calvente I, Núñez MI. Is the sustainability of exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation possible? Med Clin (Barc) 2024; 162:387-393. [PMID: 38151370 DOI: 10.1016/j.medcli.2023.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Technological advances imply an increase in artificially generating sources of electromagnetic fields (EMF), therefore, resulting in a permanent exposure of people and the environment (electromagnetic pollution). Inconsistent results have been published considering the evaluated health effects. The purpose of this study was to review scientific literature on EMF to provide a global and retrospective perspective, on the association between human exposure to non-ionizing radiation (NIR, mainly radiofrequency-EMF) and health and environmental effects. Studies on the health effects of 5G radiation exposure have not yet been performed with sufficient statistical power, as the exposure time is still relatively short and also the latency and intensity of exposure to 5G. The safety standards only consider thermal effects, do not contemplate non-thermal effects. We consider relevant to communicate this knowledge to the general public to improve education in this field, and to healthcare professionals to prevent diseases that may result from RF-EMF exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Calvente
- Research Support Unit, Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs.GRANADA), University Hospital Complex of Granada, Spain
| | - María Isabel Núñez
- Research Support Unit, Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs.GRANADA), University Hospital Complex of Granada, Spain; Department of Radiology and Physical Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, Spain.
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7
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López I, Rivera M, Félix N, Maestú C. It is mandatory to review environmental radiofrequency electromagnetic field measurement protocols and exposure regulations: An opinion article. Front Public Health 2022; 10:992645. [PMID: 36353271 PMCID: PMC9639819 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.992645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel López
- Departamento de Fotónica y Bioingeniería (TFB), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marco Rivera
- Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nazario Félix
- Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,Departamento de Arquitectura y Tecnología de Sistemas Informáticos (DATSI), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Informáticos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ceferino Maestú
- Departamento de Fotónica y Bioingeniería (TFB), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,CIBER–BBN Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Madrid, Spain,*Correspondence: Ceferino Maestú
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