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Aragón-Vela J, González-Acevedo O, De la Cruz-Márquez JC, Rojas Ruíz FJ, Marín MM, Casuso RA, Plaza-Diaz J, Huertas JFR. The Effects of Acute Deep Seawater Supplementation on Muscle Function after Triathlon. J Clin Med 2024; 13:2258. [PMID: 38673531 PMCID: PMC11051008 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13082258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Trainers and athletes have always sought to reduce the failure of muscle function during long endurance events. However, nowadays, it is a topic that is generating much debate in the scientific field. Currently, deep-sea water (DSW) intake seems to be a suitable hydration alternative for this type of endurance event. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether DSW consumption during a triathlon event could preserve muscle function after exercise. (2) Methods: Nineteen trained male triathletes (age = 39.0 ± 4.25 years; BMI = 23.67 ± 1.81 kg/m2) randomly performed three triathlons, one of them consuming DSW (Totum SPORT 30 AB, Laboratories Quinton International, S.L., Spain), the other consuming isotonic placebo and the last with tap water-hydration. A vertical jump test with countermovement and an isometric muscle strength test were conducted before and after the triathlon test. (3) Results: There was a significant difference between treatment × time during the isometric muscle strength test. Based on the Tukey post hoc analysis, the peak net force decreased statistically in the placebo (p = 0.045) and control conditions (p = 0.026), but not in the experimental condition (p = 0.121). In addition, all of the conditions studied obtained similar results in the countermovement vertical jump after exercise. (4) Conclusions: As a result, consumption of DSW seems to delay the failure of muscle function specifically in isometric exercises but does not improve performance in sports. Thus, DSW does not alter muscle capacity in a negative way; therefore, its consumption may be recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerónimo Aragón-Vela
- Department of Health Sciences, Area of Physiology, Campus “Las Lagunillas”, Building B3, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaén, Spain;
| | - Olivia González-Acevedo
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology “José Mataix”, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (O.G.-A.); (J.F.R.H.)
| | - Juan Carlos De la Cruz-Márquez
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (F.J.R.R.); (M.M.M.)
| | - Francisco Javier Rojas Ruíz
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (F.J.R.R.); (M.M.M.)
| | - Manuel Martínez Marín
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (F.J.R.R.); (M.M.M.)
| | - Rafael A. Casuso
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, 41704 Sevilla, Spain;
| | - Julio Plaza-Diaz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria IBS.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain
- Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L1, Canada
| | - Jesus F. Rodriguez Huertas
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology “José Mataix”, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (O.G.-A.); (J.F.R.H.)
- Department of Physiology, School of Pharmacy, Campus de Cartuja s/n, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
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Rogerson D, Nolan D, Korakakis PA, Immonen V, Wolf M, Bell L. Deloading Practices in Strength and Physique Sports: A Cross-sectional Survey. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2024; 10:26. [PMID: 38499934 PMCID: PMC10948666 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00691-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study explored the deloading practices of competitive strength and physique athletes. A 55-item anonymised web-based survey was distributed to a convenience-based, cross-sectional sample of competitive strength and physique athletes (n = 246; males = 181 [73.6%], females = 65 [26.4%]; age = 29.5 ± 8.6 years) who had 8.2 ± 6.2 years of resistance training and 3.8 ± 3.1 years of competition experience. RESULTS All athletes deloaded within training with energy and fatigue management being the main reasons to do so. The typical duration of a deload was 6.4 ± 1.7 days, integrated into the training programme every 5.6 ± 2.3 weeks. Deloading was undertaken using a proactive, pre-planned strategy (or in combination with an autoregulated approach) and undertaken when performance stalled or during periods of increased muscle soreness or joint aches. Athletes reported that training volume would decrease (through a reduction in both repetitions per set and sets per week), but training frequency would remain unchanged during deloads. Additionally, athletes reported that training intensity (load lifted) would decrease, and effort would be reduced (facilitated through an increase in repetitions in reserve). Athletes would generally maintain the same exercise selection during deloading. For athletes that supplemented deloading with additional recovery modalities (n = 118; 48%), the most reported strategies were massage, static stretching and foam rolling. CONCLUSION Results from this research might assist strength and physique athletes and coaches to plan their deloading. Future research should empirically investigate the findings from this study to further evaluate the potential utility of deloading in strength and physique sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Rogerson
- Academy of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP, UK.
| | - David Nolan
- School of Health & Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Velu Immonen
- Department of Sports and Exercise, Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences, Vierumäki, 19120, Finland
| | - Milo Wolf
- Centre for Health, Exercise and Sport Science, Solent University, E Park Terrace, Southampton, SO14 0YN, UK
| | - Lee Bell
- Academy of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP, UK
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Oxfeldt M, Pedersen AB, Hørmann D, Lind JH, Larsen EB, Aagaard P, Hansen M. Influence of Second-Generation Oral Contraceptives on Muscle Recovery after Repeated Resistance Exercise in Trained Females. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:499-510. [PMID: 38356164 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Oral contraceptives (OCs) are commonly used by female athletes, but their effects on skeletal muscle are still poorly understood. We investigated if physically trained females using second-generation OCs differed from nonusers of OCs in the recovery of muscle function and muscle damage markers after repeated resistance exercise sessions. METHODS We recruited 20 trained second-generation OC users and 20 trained nonusers to perform three strenuous resistance exercise sessions. Before, and 3, 24, and 48 h after exercise, blood samples were collected, and participants were evaluated for muscle soreness, maximal isometric and isokinetic muscle strength, vertical jump height, Wingate power performance, leg press strength, and intermittent recovery capacity (yo-yo test). All participants were provided with an energy-macronutrient-balanced diet during the experimental period. RESULTS After resistance exercise, maximal isometric and isokinetic muscle strength, rate of force development, vertical jump height, and Wingate peak and average power were reduced, whereas markers of muscle damage were increased in both groups (P < 0.05). OC users experienced a greater reduction in isokinetic strength 3, 24, and 48 h after exercise compared with nonusers of OCs (interaction: P < 0.05). No other interactions were observed. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate that measures of muscle strength recovery after three strenuous resistance exercise sessions are comparable between trained females using second-generation OCs and nonusers of OCs. However, group differences were observed for isolated dynamic (isokinetic) muscle strength, suggesting a marginal benefit of not using OCs when accelerated recovery is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikkel Oxfeldt
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | - Anton B Pedersen
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | - Daniel Hørmann
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | - Jesper H Lind
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | - Emil B Larsen
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | - Per Aagaard
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, DENMARK
| | - Mette Hansen
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
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Coleman M, Burke R, Augustin F, Piñero A, Maldonado J, Fisher JP, Israetel M, Androulakis Korakakis P, Swinton P, Oberlin D, Schoenfeld BJ. Gaining more from doing less? The effects of a one-week deload period during supervised resistance training on muscular adaptations. PeerJ 2024; 12:e16777. [PMID: 38274324 PMCID: PMC10809978 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Based on emerging evidence that brief periods of cessation from resistance training (RT) may re-sensitize muscle to anabolic stimuli, we aimed to investigate the effects of a 1-week deload interval at the midpoint of a 9-week RT program on muscular adaptations in resistance-trained individuals. Methods Thirty-nine young men (n = 29) and women (n = 10) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental, parallel groups: An experimental group that abstained from RT for 1 week at the midpoint of a 9-week, high-volume RT program (DELOAD) or a traditional training group that performed the same RT program continuously over the study period (TRAD). The lower body routines were directly supervised by the research staff while upper body training was carried out in an unsupervised fashion. Muscle growth outcomes included assessments of muscle thickness along proximal, mid and distal regions of the middle and lateral quadriceps femoris as well as the mid-region of the triceps surae. Adaptions in lower body isometric and dynamic strength, local muscular endurance of the quadriceps, and lower body muscle power were also assessed. Results Results indicated no appreciable differences in increases of lower body muscle size, local endurance, and power between groups. Alternatively, TRAD showed greater improvements in both isometric and dynamic lower body strength compared to DELOAD. Additionally, TRAD showed some slight psychological benefits as assessed by the readiness to train questionnaire over DELOAD. Conclusion In conclusion, our findings suggest that a 1-week deload period at the midpoint of a 9-week RT program appears to negatively influence measures of lower body muscle strength but has no effect on lower body hypertrophy, power or local muscular endurance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Coleman
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Ryan Burke
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Francesca Augustin
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Alec Piñero
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Jaime Maldonado
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | | | - Michael Israetel
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Patroklos Androulakis Korakakis
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Paul Swinton
- Robert Gordon Univesity, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas Oberlin
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
| | - Brad J. Schoenfeld
- Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, City University of New York, Herbert H. Lehman College, Bronx, United States of America
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Morin T, Souron R, Boulaouche I, Jubeau M, Nordez A, Lacourpaille L. Mild to moderate damage in knee extensor muscles accumulates after two bouts of maximal eccentric contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:2723-2732. [PMID: 37351697 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05257-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to determine whether mild to moderate muscle damage accumulates on the knee extensors after two bouts of maximal eccentric contractions performed over two consecutive days. METHODS Thirty participants performed an initial bout of maximal eccentric contractions of knee extensors during the first day of the protocol (ECC1). Then, they were separated in two groups. The Experimental (EXP) group repeated the eccentric bout 24 h later (ECC2) while the Control (CON) group did not. Indirect markers of muscle damage (i.e., strength loss, muscle soreness, and shear modulus) were measured to quantify the amount of muscle damage and its time course. RESULTS Two days after the initial eccentric session, participants from EXP had a higher strength deficit (- 14.5 ± 10.6%) than CON (- 6.6 ± 8.7%) (P = 0.017, d = 0.9). Although both groups exhibited an increase in knee extensors shear modulus after ECC1, we found a significant increase in muscle shear modulus (+ 13.3 ± 22.7%; P < 0.01; d = 0.5) after ECC2 for the EXP group, despite the presence of mild to moderate muscle damage (i.e., strength deficit about 16%). CONCLUSION Although the markers of muscle damage used in the current study were indirect, they suggest that the repetition of two bouts of maximal eccentric contractions with 24 h apart induces additional muscle damage in the knee extensors in presence of mild to moderate muscle damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Titouan Morin
- Laboratory Movement, Interactions, Performance, MIP (UR 4334), Nantes Université, 25 Bis Boulevard Guy Mollet, BP 72206, 44322, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Robin Souron
- Laboratory Movement, Interactions, Performance, MIP (UR 4334), Nantes Université, 25 Bis Boulevard Guy Mollet, BP 72206, 44322, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Ines Boulaouche
- Laboratory Movement, Interactions, Performance, MIP (UR 4334), Nantes Université, 25 Bis Boulevard Guy Mollet, BP 72206, 44322, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Marc Jubeau
- Laboratory Movement, Interactions, Performance, MIP (UR 4334), Nantes Université, 25 Bis Boulevard Guy Mollet, BP 72206, 44322, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Antoine Nordez
- Laboratory Movement, Interactions, Performance, MIP (UR 4334), Nantes Université, 25 Bis Boulevard Guy Mollet, BP 72206, 44322, Nantes Cedex 3, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
| | - Lilian Lacourpaille
- Laboratory Movement, Interactions, Performance, MIP (UR 4334), Nantes Université, 25 Bis Boulevard Guy Mollet, BP 72206, 44322, Nantes Cedex 3, France.
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Spiering BA, Clark BC, Schoenfeld BJ, Foulis SA, Pasiakos SM. Maximizing Strength: The Stimuli and Mediators of Strength Gains and Their Application to Training and Rehabilitation. J Strength Cond Res 2023; 37:919-929. [PMID: 36580280 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Spiering, BA, Clark, BC, Schoenfeld, BJ, Foulis, SA, and Pasiakos, SM. Maximizing strength: the stimuli and mediators of strength gains and their application to training and rehabilitation. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 919-929, 2023-Traditional heavy resistance exercise (RE) training increases maximal strength, a valuable adaptation in many situations. That stated, some populations seek new opportunities for pushing the upper limits of strength gains (e.g., athletes and military personnel). Alternatively, other populations strive to increase or maintain strength but cannot perform heavy RE (e.g., during at-home exercise, during deployment, or after injury or illness). Therefore, the purpose of this narrative review is to (a) identify the known stimuli that trigger gains in strength; (b) identify the known factors that mediate the long-term effectiveness of these stimuli; (c) discuss (and in some cases, speculate on) potential opportunities for maximizing strength gains beyond current limits; and (d) discuss practical applications for increasing or maintaining strength when traditional heavy RE cannot be performed. First, by conceptually deconstructing traditional heavy RE, we identify that strength gains are stimulated through a sequence of events, namely: giving maximal mental effort, leading to maximal neural activation of muscle to produce forceful contractions, involving lifting and lowering movements, training through a full range of motion, and (potentially) inducing muscular metabolic stress. Second, we identify factors that mediate the long-term effectiveness of these RE stimuli, namely: optimizing the dose of RE within a session, beginning each set of RE in a minimally fatigued state, optimizing recovery between training sessions, and (potentially) periodizing the training stimulus over time. Equipped with these insights, we identify potential opportunities for further maximizing strength gains. Finally, we identify opportunities for increasing or maintaining strength when traditional heavy RE cannot be performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry A Spiering
- Military Performance Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts
| | - Brian C Clark
- Ohio Musculoskeletal and Neurological Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio; and
| | | | - Stephen A Foulis
- Military Performance Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts
| | - Stefan M Pasiakos
- Military Performance Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts
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Refalo MC, Helms ER, Trexler ET, Hamilton DL, Fyfe JJ. Influence of Resistance Training Proximity-to-Failure on Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2023; 53:649-665. [PMID: 36334240 PMCID: PMC9935748 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01784-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE This systematic review with meta-analysis investigated the influence of resistance training proximity-to-failure on muscle hypertrophy. METHODS Literature searches in the PubMed, SCOPUS and SPORTDiscus databases identified a total of 15 studies that measured muscle hypertrophy (in healthy adults of any age and resistance training experience) and compared resistance training performed to: (A) momentary muscular failure versus non-failure; (B) set failure (defined as anything other than momentary muscular failure) versus non-failure; or (C) different velocity loss thresholds. RESULTS There was a trivial advantage for resistance training performed to set failure versus non-failure for muscle hypertrophy in studies applying any definition of set failure [effect size=0.19 (95% confidence interval 0.00, 0.37), p=0.045], with no moderating effect of volume load (p=0.884) or relative load (p=0.525). Given the variability in set failure definitions applied across studies, sub-group analyses were conducted and found no advantage for either resistance training performed to momentary muscular failure versus non-failure for muscle hypertrophy [effect size=0.12 (95% confidence interval -0.13, 0.37), p=0.343], or for resistance training performed to high (>25%) versus moderate (20-25%) velocity loss thresholds [effect size=0.08 (95% confidence interval -0.16, 0.32), p=0.529]. CONCLUSION Overall, our main findings suggest that (i) there is no evidence to support that resistance training performed to momentary muscular failure is superior to non-failure resistance training for muscle hypertrophy and (ii) higher velocity loss thresholds, and theoretically closer proximities-to-failure do not always elicit greater muscle hypertrophy. As such, these results provide evidence for a potential non-linear relationship between proximity-to-failure and muscle hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C Refalo
- Centre for Sport Research (CSR), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia.
| | - Eric R Helms
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - D Lee Hamilton
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Jackson J Fyfe
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
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Exe-Muscle: An Exercised Human Skeletal Muscle Gene Expression Database. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19148806. [PMID: 35886662 PMCID: PMC9325005 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19148806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Human muscle tissue undergoes dynamic changes in gene expression during exercise, and the dynamics of these genes are correlated with muscle adaptation to exercise. A database of gene expression changes in human muscle before and after exercise was established for data mining. A web-based searchable database, Exe-muscle, was developed using microarray sequencing data, which can help users to retrieve gene expression at different times. Search results provide a complete description of target genes or genes with specific expression patterns. We can explore the molecular mechanisms behind exercise science by studying the changes in muscle gene expression over time before and after exercise. Based on the high-throughput microarray data before and after human exercise, a human pre- and post-exercise database was created using web-based database technology, which researchers can use or share their gene expression data. The Exe-muscle database is accessible online.
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Bell L, Ruddock A, Maden-Wilkinson T, Rogerson D. “I Want to Create So Much Stimulus That Adaptation Goes Through the Roof”: High-Performance Strength Coaches' Perceptions of Planned Overreaching. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:893581. [PMID: 35585963 PMCID: PMC9108365 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.893581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional overreaching (FOR) occurs when athletes experience improved athletic capabilities in the days and weeks following short-term periods of increased training demand. However, prolonged high training demand with insufficient recovery may also lead to non-functional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS). The aim of this research was to explore strength coaches' perceptions and experiences of planned overreaching (POR); short-term periods of increased training demand designed to improve athletic performance. Fourteen high-performance strength coaches (weightlifting; n = 5, powerlifting; n = 4, sprinting; n = 2, throws; n = 2, jumps; n = 1) participated in semistructured interviews. Reflexive thematic analysis identified 3 themes: creating enough challenge, training prescription, and questioning the risk to reward. POR was implemented for a 7 to 14 day training cycle and facilitated through increased daily/weekly training volume and/or training intensity. Participants implemented POR in the weeks (~5–8 weeks) preceding competition to allow sufficient time for performance restoration and improvement to occur. Short-term decreased performance capacity, both during and in the days to weeks following training, was an anticipated by-product of POR, and at times used as a benchmark to confirm that training demand was sufficiently challenging. Some participants chose not to implement POR due to a lack of knowledge, confidence, and/or perceived increased risk of athlete training maladaptation. Additionally, this research highlights the potential dichotomy between POR protocols used by strength coaches to enhance athletic performance and those used for the purpose of inducing training maladaptation for diagnostic identification.
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