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Gao J, Yang Y, Xu X, Huang D, Wu Y, Ren H, Zhang A, Ke X, Song W. Motor-Based Interventions in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2025; 11:59. [PMID: 40419841 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-025-00833-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2025] [Indexed: 05/28/2025]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neuromotor disorder in children that is characterized by significant difficulties in fine and gross motor skills. The main interventions for children with DCD are motor-based interventions (MBI), and a large number of relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have emerged in recent years, but the efficacy of different types of MBI on different outcome parameters is unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of MBI on standardized motor tests, body functions, activity and participation performance, and psychosocial factors in children with DCD, and to explore the differential effects of different types of interventions (including process-oriented, task-oriented, or combined task- and process-oriented) on the above outcome parameters. METHODS We conducted a systematic literature search of all studies published in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane Library up to January 31, 2024 to compile all RCTs on MBI for children with DCD. Participants in this study were children with DCD between the ages of 3 and 17, using standardised motor skills tests, body function, activity and participation performance, or psychosocial factors as study outcomes. We assessed the risk of bias for each study and the overall risk of bias using Cochrane's 'risk of bias' tool. Quantitative syntheses (meta-analyses) were conducted with effect sizes expressed as Hedges' g. RESULTS A total of 32 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The results showed that MBI significantly improved the overall motor skills (g = 1.00, 95%CI [0.48,1.52], p < 0.001), balance function (g = 0.57, 95%CI [0.17,0.97], p = 0.005), cognitive function (g = 1.53, 95%CI [0.67,2.39], p = 0.001), muscle function (g = 0.91, 95%CI [0.17,1.66], p = 0.017), coordination function (g = 0.47, 95%CI [0.04,0.90], p = 0.032), visual function (g = 0.61, 95%CI [0.15,1.08], p = 0.009), sensory function (g = 0.85, 95%CI [0.34,1.35], p = 0.001), sensory organization function (g = 0.61, 95%CI [0.27,0.96], p = 0.001) and activity performance (g = 0.71, 95%CI [0.23,1.19], p = 0.004), but improvements in children's psychosocial factors (g = 0.71, 95%CI [- 0.08,1.50], p = 0.079) were not significant, nor were improvements in children's participation levels observed with MBI. Subgroup analyses further revealed that task-oriented training significantly improved overall motor skills, balance function, and activity performance in children with DCD, and that combined task- and process-oriented training also significantly improved overall motor skills in children with DCD. CONCLUSIONS MBI demonstrates significant positive effects on enhancing standardized motor test scores, body functions, and levels of activity performance in children with DCD. However, no improvements were observed in children's participation levels, and no statistically significant effects were observed on psychosocial outcomes. Our findings further highlight the comparative effectiveness of intervention strategies. Task-oriented approaches significantly improved overall motor skills, balance, cognitive function, and activity performance, while combined task- and process-oriented strategies also enhanced overall motor skills. In contrast, given the limited number of included studies, the effects of process-oriented strategies on motor skills and activity performance, as well as the impact of combined strategies on activity performance, remain inconclusive. In conclusion, our comprehensive study suggests the preference for employing task-oriented strategies or training underlying processes within task-oriented training for children with DCD. REGISTRATION The protocol of the investigation was registered in PROSPERO (ID: CRD42024499574). KEY POINTS Motor-based interventions significantly improved standardized motor test scores, body functions, and activity performance levels in children with DCD, but no improvements were observed in participation levels or psychosocial outcomes. Task-oriented strategies were highly effective in improving motor skills, balance, cognitive function, and activity performance, while combined task- and process-oriented approaches also enhanced overall motor skills. The effects of process-oriented approaches on motor skills and activity performance, as well as the impact of combined strategies on activity performance, remain inconclusive due to the limited number of studies, emphasizing the need for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Gao
- School of Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yihan Yang
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaqing Xu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Dunbing Huang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yangxin Wu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongfei Ren
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Anren Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xiaohua Ke
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wei Song
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
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Tsiakiri A, Plakias S, Kokkotis C, Vlotinou P, Kyriazidou S, Giarmatzis G, Kallivoulos S, Terzoudi A, Tsiptsios D, Merai S, Emmanouilidou C, Kariotis C, Kanidou A, Aggelousis N, Vadikolias K, Christidi F. Instrumental Activities of Daily Living in Neurocognitive Disorders: Determinants and Clinical Implications for Health Promotion. Brain Sci 2025; 15:417. [PMID: 40309890 PMCID: PMC12025867 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci15040417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2025] [Revised: 04/15/2025] [Accepted: 04/18/2025] [Indexed: 05/02/2025] Open
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) are the key indicators of the autonomy and functional ability in older adults with neurocognitive disorders (NCDs). However, the specific predictors of IADL performance across the NCD spectrum remains insufficiently characterized. This study aimed to identify the cognitive, motor, and caregiver-related determinants of the IADL in individuals with minor and major NCDs. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 117 participants referred from a university-based dementia clinic. Standardized tools were administered to evaluate their IADL performance (Lawton IADL Scale), cognition [Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination III (ACE-III)], Functional Cognitive Assessment Scale (FUCAS)], motor functions, balance, and mobility [Tinetti Test, Timed Up and Go (TUG)], emotional status [Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS)], neuropsychiatric symptoms [Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI)], and caregiver burden [Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI)]. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify the significant predictors of IADL performance. Results: In the total sample (n = 117), the IADL performance was significantly predicted via ACE-III, FUCAS, and Tinetti-balance (adjusted R2 = 0.729). In the minor NCD group (n = 41), the significant predictors included sex, FUCAS, GDS, Tinetti-balance, and TUG (adjusted R2 = 0.725). In the major NCD group (n = 76), ACE-III, FUCAS, and Tinetti-balance remained the significant predictors (adjusted R2 = 0.634). Female sex and a worse profile on the other variables were associated with lower IADL scores. Conclusions: Global cognitive decline, executive dysfunction in everyday problem-solving situations, and balance impairment are the key determinants of IADL performance across both minor and major NCDs. Female sex and depressive symptoms further predicted the IADL performance in the minor NCD group. These findings highlight the need for multidisciplinary assessment and intervention strategies to promote health and autonomy and preserve the functional independence in older adults with NCDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Tsiakiri
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Spyridon Plakias
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, 42100 Trikala, Greece;
| | - Christos Kokkotis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 69100 Komotini, Greece; (C.K.); (G.G.); (N.A.)
| | - Pinelopi Vlotinou
- Department of Occupational Therapy, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece;
| | - Sotiria Kyriazidou
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Georgios Giarmatzis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 69100 Komotini, Greece; (C.K.); (G.G.); (N.A.)
| | - Stylianos Kallivoulos
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Aikaterini Terzoudi
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Dimitrios Tsiptsios
- 3rd Department of Neurology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Souzana Merai
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Chrysoula Emmanouilidou
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Christos Kariotis
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Anna Kanidou
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Nikolaos Aggelousis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 69100 Komotini, Greece; (C.K.); (G.G.); (N.A.)
| | - Konstantinos Vadikolias
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
| | - Foteini Christidi
- Dementia Day Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (A.T.); (S.K.); (S.K.); (A.T.); (S.M.); (C.E.); (C.K.); (A.K.); (K.V.)
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Ye M, Song T, Xia H, Hou Y, Chen A. Effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud 2024; 160:104912. [PMID: 39326271 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2024.104912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Revised: 09/12/2024] [Accepted: 09/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The deterioration of executive function is a hallmark of cognitive aging. Reports indicate that signs of decline in executive function begin to emerge as early as middle age. Aerobic exercise improves executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults, but the optimal exercise prescription variables are still unclear. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults and explore the dose-response relationship and moderators. METHODS We conducted comprehensive searches of PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus for English literature, and CNKI, WanFang, and VIP for Chinese literature, covering the period from inception until April 25, 2024. Randomized controlled trials examining the effect of aerobic exercise on executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults aged 45 or older were included. The Cochrane Collaboration's RoB2 tool was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. And subgroup analyses and meta-regressions were conducted to elucidate the impact of aerobic exercise on executive function. RESULTS Forty-two eligible randomized controlled trials, involving a total of 2881 participants, met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review and meta-analysis. The pooled results showed that aerobic exercise had positive effects on improving cognitive flexibility (Hedge's g = 0.343, p < 0.001), working memory (Hedge's g = 0.392, p < 0.001), and inhibitory control (Hedge's g = 0.229, p < 0.001) in healthy middle-aged and older adults. However, it did not demonstrate an improvement in planning (Hedge's g = 0.094, p = 0.440). The dose-response relationships between different exercise parameters and subdomains of executive functions revealed that the largest effects on cognitive flexibility were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity mind-body exercise, 46-60 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. Regarding working memory, the largest effects were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. For inhibitory control, the greatest effects were noted after 13-24 weeks of low-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 3-4 days per week. CONCLUSION Aerobic exercise can significantly improve cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control in healthy middle-aged and older adults. The effect of aerobic exercise on different aspects of executive function is influenced by specific exercise parameters, suggesting that personalized aerobic exercise programs may be more effective for enhancing executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhu Ye
- School of Psychology, Research Center for Exercise and Brain Science, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200082, China; Rehabilitation Treatment Center, The First Rehabilitation Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Tao Song
- School of Psychology, Research Center for Exercise and Brain Science, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200082, China
| | - Haishuo Xia
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of the Ministry of Education, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Yongqing Hou
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of the Ministry of Education, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Antao Chen
- School of Psychology, Research Center for Exercise and Brain Science, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200082, China.
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Falk J, Eriksson Sörman D, Strandkvist V, Vikman I, Röijezon U. Cognitive functions explain discrete parameters of normal walking and dual-task walking, but not postural sway in quiet stance among physically active older people. BMC Geriatr 2024; 24:849. [PMID: 39427183 PMCID: PMC11490021 DOI: 10.1186/s12877-024-05425-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 09/30/2024] [Indexed: 10/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Postural control is dependent on the central nervous system's accurate interpretation of sensory information to formulate and execute adequate motor actions. Research has shown that cognitive functions are associated with both postural control and fall risk, but specific associations are not established. The aim of this study was to explore how specific components of everyday postural control tasks are associated with both general and specific cognitive functions. METHODS Forty-six community-dwelling older adults reported their age, sex, physical activity level, falls and fall-related concerns. The following cognitive aspects were assessed: global cognition, executive functions, processing speed and intraindividual variability. Postural control was quantified by measuring postural sway in quiet stance, walking at a self-selected pace, and walking while performing a concurrent arithmetical task. Separate orthogonal projections of latent structures models were generated for each postural control outcome using descriptive and cognitive variables as explanatory variables. RESULTS Longer step length and faster gait speed were related to faster processing speed and less intraindividual variability in the choice reaction test. Moreover, longer step length was also related to less fall-related concerns and less severe fall-related injuries, while faster gait speed was also related to female sex and poorer global cognition. Lower dual-task cost for gait speed was explained by the executive function inhibition and faster processing speed. Postural sway in quiet stance was not explained by cognitive functions. CONCLUSIONS Cognitive functions explained gait speed and step length during normal walking, as well as the decrease of gait speed while performing a concurrent cognitive task. The results suggest that different cognitive processes are important for different postural control aspects. Postural sway in quiet stance, step time and gait variability seem to depend more on physical and automatic processes rather than higher cognitive functions among physically active older people. The relationships between cognitive functions and postural control likely vary depending on the specific tasks and the characteristics of different populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Falk
- Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, 97187, Sweden.
| | | | | | - Irene Vikman
- Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, 97187, Sweden
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Wang H, Huo M, Zhao Y, He J, He J. Physical education consumption and executive function among older empty nesters in urban community: A double mediation effects. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2024; 249:104464. [PMID: 39173345 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 08/13/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The main aim of this research was to determine the relationships among executive function, fitness mobile applications (APPs), physical exercise activity and physical education consumption in community-dwelling older empty nesters. METHODS A cross-sectional design was applied to evaluate the relationships. A sample of 1104 community-dwelling older empty nesters completed the experiments. Physical education consumption scale, fitness APPs by smartphone application scale, physical exercise activity scale, and executive function scale were applied for the evaluation of the elderly alone in urban communities in southeast China. To explore mediating effects, structural equation modeling of AMOS 23.0, SPSS 25.0 and Process V3.5 software packages were applied for statistical processing. RESULT Physical education consumption positively predicted executive function. Meanwhile, it was also found that physical education consumption and executive function were continuously mediated by fitness APP application and physical exercise activity, with indirect effect value of 0.267, accounting for 76 %. CONCLUSION This research revealed how physical education consumption affected executive function of older empty nesters. The obtained results had certain implications for older empty nesters to better balance their executive function and life quality. Community managers should provide older empty nesters with favorable physical education environments in terms of positive physical and psychological environments, to improve their use ratio of fitness APPs usage and physical exercise activity, ultimately enhancing their executive function and life satisfaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongzhao Wang
- Department of Physical Education, Huainan Normal University, Huainan 232038, China; School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao 250002, China
| | - Ming Huo
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao 250002, China; Beijing Chaoyang Sanhuan Cancer Hospital, Beijing 100122, China.
| | - Yanyan Zhao
- Department of Physical Education, Huainan Normal University, Huainan 232038, China
| | - Jie He
- Department of Physical Education, Huainan Normal University, Huainan 232038, China
| | - Jingtang He
- Department of Physical Education, Huainan Normal University, Huainan 232038, China
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Divandari N, Bird ML, Vakili M, Jaberzadeh S. The association between dynamic balance and executive function: Which dynamic balance test has the strongest association with executive function? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2024; 24:151-161. [PMID: 38730213 PMCID: PMC11143012 DOI: 10.1007/s11910-024-01340-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
AIM The aging global population poses increasing challenges related to falls and dementia. Early identification of cognitive decline, particularly before noticeable symptoms manifest, is crucial for effective intervention. This review aims to determine the dynamic balance test most closely associated with executive function, potentially serving as a biomarker for cognitive decline. RECENT FINDINGS Based on recent reviews, inhibitory control, a component of executive function, holds significance in influencing balance performance. Studies suggest that the strength of the correlation between cognition and balance tends to be domain-specific and task-specific. Despite these findings, inconclusive evidence remains regarding the connection between executive function and various dynamic balance assessments. Our review identifies a significant association between all dynamic balance tests and executive function, albeit with varying strengths. Notably, a medium effect size is observed for the Timed Up and Go and Functional Reach Test, a small effect size for balance scales, and a strong effect size for postural sway. This review underscores a clear relationship between dynamic balance task performance and executive function. Dynamic posturography holds potential as a clinical biomarker for early detection of cognitive decline, with a note of caution due to observed heterogeneity and limited studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahid Divandari
- Monash Neuromodulation Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, PO Box 527, Melbourne, Frankston, VIC, 3199, Australia.
| | - Marie-Louise Bird
- School of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Newnham Tasmania, 7248, Australia
| | | | - Shapour Jaberzadeh
- Monash Neuromodulation Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, PO Box 527, Melbourne, Frankston, VIC, 3199, Australia
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Wang H, Pei Z, Liu Y. Effects of square dance exercise on cognitive function in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment: the mediating role of balance ability and executive function. BMC Geriatr 2024; 24:156. [PMID: 38360628 PMCID: PMC10870555 DOI: 10.1186/s12877-024-04714-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Square dancing is a kind of aerobic fitness exercise without environmental restrictions that yields many benefits for physical and mental health; this exercise is popular among middle-aged and elderly people in China and in these populations in other countries. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of square dance exercise on the overall cognitive function of elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and to research its mechanisms. METHODS A total of 60 elderly people with MCI (60-69 years old) without square dance experience were selected and randomly divided into an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30). The experimental group participated in square dance exercise for 12 weeks, while the control group maintained their original lifestyle habits. One week before and after the intervention period, the overall cognitive function, physical fitness, and executive function of both groups were measured. RESULTS According to the results, square dance exercise directly improved the overall cognitive function of elderly individuals with MCI and indirectly affected overall cognitive function through the mediating effects of balance ability and executive function. CONCLUSIONS Square dance exercise represents a nonpharmacological intervention for the prevention and treatment of MCI. Importantly, it is best to combine this exercise with other forms of physical exercise and comprehensive treatment programs such as cognitive training, social interaction, and psychological intervention to realize its maximum effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Wang
- College of Physical Education, Henan Normal University, 453007, Xinxiang, China.
| | - Zhengguo Pei
- College of Physical Education, Henan Normal University, 453007, Xinxiang, China
| | - Yangyang Liu
- College of Physical Education, Henan Normal University, 453007, Xinxiang, China
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