Stereotypes associated with a low-fat diet and their relevance to nutrition education

College students' perceptions of individuals following popular diets and individuals with Orthorexia Nervosa

Dietary trends, such as "clean eating" and the ketogenic diet, are popular among young adults. However, very few studies have investigated perceptions of individuals who reportedly adhere to specific popular diets, despite research indicating that people ascribe more positive attributes to individuals described as healthy eaters. Given these diets' popularity, and the potential harm that comes from following them, it seems important to understand college students' perceptions of these eating patterns. This study investigated female undergraduates' (n = 463) perceptions of vignette characters described as adhering to specific dietary practices, including three popular diets (Clean Eating, Keto, and Intermittent Fasting), the rigid healthy eating pattern, Orthorexia nervosa (ON), and a nondieting control. Characters described as adhering to Clean Eating were viewed most positively, followed by individuals following the Ketogenic diet or nondieters. Characters following an Intermittent Fasting diet, and those with ON were viewed most negatively. Findings support the idea that perceptions of individuals are associated with their adherence to specific popular diets. Future research should investigate potential links among dieting behavior and impression management.

Too picky for my taste? The effect of the gluten-free dietary restriction on impressions of romantic partners

Millions of individuals world-wide adhere to a gluten-free diet and this dietary trend is on the rise. The present research identified a consumption stereotype of those following a gluten-free diet and tested whether this stereotype influenced impressions and interest in a potential romantic partner. We also assessed whether being gluten-free differentially impacted impressions of males compared to females. In Study 1, participants (N = 161) responded to a survey containing both qualitative and quantitative components in which they evaluated gluten-free individuals and indicated their interest in dating them. In Study 2 (N = 132), we manipulated the dietary restriction (gluten-free vs. no dietary restriction) of a target within the context of a mock online dating paradigm and measured participants' evaluations of the target. In both studies, gluten-free individuals were perceived as having positive and negative attributes such as being high-maintenance, picky, demanding, complaining and judgmental, yet healthy, self-disciplined, understanding and energetic. The gluten-free diet was associated with ratings of femininity and lead to more negative judgments of males than females. Whereas in Study 1 participants expressed some hesitation about dating a gluten-free individual, no effects on romantic interest were obtained in Study 2. These data are the first to delineate the gluten-free stereotype and provide a useful platform for future study.

People Believe and Behave as if Consumers of Natural Foods Are Especially Virtuous

We examined here whether people believe consumers of natural foods are more virtuous than consumers of unnatural foods. In Study 1, we asked student participants (n = 84; 77 female, M age = 19.5) to form an impression of another person based solely upon whether they ate natural or unnatural foods, these being determined in a pilot survey. On an open-response format, participants reported more positive moral and health traits in consumers of natural foods. These findings were further confirmed using rating-based evaluations. In Study 2, we determined if this belief in the virtuousness of natural food consumers translated into behavior. Student participants (n = 40; 25 female, M age = 20.2) played a trust game, exchanging tokens with a fictitious player. Incidental diet information about the fictitious player was provided, with participants in one group playing against a natural food consumer and those in another against an unnatural food consumer. Participants who played against a natural food consumer behaved as if they trusted this person more, and their performance on the game was predicted by how moral they felt the fictitious player was, but not by other attributes such as health. These findings suggest that people believe consumers of natural food are more virtuous, and we suggest this is driven by the altruistic attitudes that people believe to be associated with natural food consumption.

The social image of food: Associations between popularity and eating behavior

One factor that determines what we eat and why we eat is our social environment. In the present research, two online studies examined the relationship between food intake and social images. Specifically, the present research assessed the relationship between the food intake university students ascribed to peers who varied in popularity and own self-reported food intake, and whether this relationship was moderated by identification with the peer group. Participants (N = 97 in Study 1; N = 402 in Study 2) were randomly presented with one of four (Study 1) or two of eight (Study 2) vignettes describing a popular or unpopular student (male or female) from their university without receiving any information about the peer's eating behavior. Subsequently, healthy and unhealthy eating ascribed to the peers and own self-reported eating behavior were assessed. Results indicated that popular peers were perceived to eat more healthily than unpopular peers. Moreover, eating behavior ascribed to popular peers were associated with own healthy and unhealthy eating. Importantly, the relationship between healthy eating behavior ascribed to popular peers and own healthy eating behavior was moderated by identification with the student group - the more participants identified with their peers, the more their own eating was aligned with the healthy eating ascribed to a popular peer. Hence, the popularity of others seems to shape perceptions of the food they eat and may facilitate healthy eating via social influence.

The stigma of clean dieting and orthorexia nervosa

BACKGROUND

Although the stigma of eating disorders such as anorexia has been well established, little is known about the social consequences of "clean dieting" and orthorexia nervosa. In two studies, we examined the social stigma of clean dieting and orthorexia.

METHOD

In Study 1, participants read a vignette describing a woman following a "clean" diet, a woman with anorexia, or a control target (minimal information about the individual). In Study 2, participants read a vignette describing a woman with orthorexia, a woman displaying identical orthorexic behaviors but without the orthorexia label, a woman with anorexia, or a control target. Participants then rated the target individual on a range of measures assessing stereotypes, emotions, and behavioral intentions toward the target.

RESULTS

Study 1 found that the clean-dieting target was evaluated more negatively than the control target on some dimensions, but less negatively than the target with anorexia nervosa. Study 2 found that evaluations of the targets with orthorexia nervosa were more negative than evaluations of a control target, but did not differ from evaluations of the target with anorexia nervosa. Perceptions of the target's control over her behavior were associated with more positive evaluations (Studies 1 and 2), whereas perceptions of blame and responsibility for the condition were associated with more negative evaluations (Study 2).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these findings highlight the potential negative social consequences of clean dieting and orthorexia nervosa, and point to perceptions of control and blame as potential mechanisms underlying the stigma of these conditions.

Cool and independent or foolish and undisciplined? Adolescents' prototypes of (un)healthy eaters and their association with eating behaviour

PURPOSE

The Prototype/Willingness model states that adolescents' willingness to engage in health-related behaviours is determined by the favourability of prototypes of persons engaging in this behaviour. The objective of the present study is to systematically investigate the content and evaluation of adolescents' prototypes of (un)healthy eaters and examine their associations with eating behaviour.

METHODS

Four studies (including a pilot study) were conducted that addressed the salience (N=79), the characteristics (N=287), and the evaluation (N=167) of eater prototypes, and their association with eating behaviour (N=97), respectively.

RESULTS

These studies revealed that (1) adolescents hold salient and distinct images of typical (un)healthy eaters; (2) the healthy eater prototype mostly consists of positive traits whereas the unhealthy eater prototype reflects mostly negative traits; (3) eater-specific prototypes are distinct from generic risk prototypes and unrelated to age, bodyweight, and social desirability; and (4) unhealthy eater prototypes are significantly associated with unhealthy eating behaviour.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents hold relatively unfavourable social images of unhealthy eaters and relatively favourable images of healthy eaters. Only unhealthy eater prototypes are associated with actual food consumption, suggesting that addressing unhealthy eater prototypes may be an important and novel ingredient of interventions aimed at changing adolescents' unhealthy eating habits.

Consumption stereotypes and impression management: how you are what you eat

Consumption stereotypes refer to judgments about others based on their food intake. We review the empirical research on stereotypes based on what and how much people eat. The characteristics stereotypically associated with food intake pertain to domains ranging from gender roles and social appeal to health and weight. For example, people who eat "healthy" foods and smaller meals are seen as more feminine; conversely, those who eat "unhealthy" foods and larger meals are seen as more masculine. We further discuss how these stereotypes can be exploited by the eater to convey a particular impression (e.g., femininity, social appeal). Finally, we discuss the ways in which using food intake as an impression-management tactic can lead to chronic food restriction and unhealthy eating habits.

PERCEPTIONS OF COLLEGE WOMEN WITH DISORDERED EATING AND EXERCISE PATTERNS

This study examined college students' perceptions of women struggling with various eating-and exercise-related disorders. The 220 participants read a vignette describing either an anorexic female, a bulimic female, a female who engages in excessive exercise, or a control female target. The targets were rated on a list of personality and physical dimensions. The participants' demographic information, perceived similarity to the target, and experience with someone similar to the target were also examined. Results demonstrated that the targets with anorexia and bulimia were viewed significantly more negatively than were excessive exercising and control targets. Perceived personal similarity to the target also significantly increased positive ratings of the targets, which suggests that those who have had an eating disorder may empathize with those who are currently struggling.

Impressions of functional food consumers

Functional foods provide a new way of expressing healthiness in food choices. The objective of this study was to apply an indirect measure to explore what kind of impressions people form of users of functional foods. Respondents (n=350) received one of eight versions of a shopping list and rated the buyer of the foods on 66 bipolar attributes on 7-point scales. The shopping lists had either healthy or neutral background items, conventional or functional target items and the buyer was described either as a 40-year-old woman or man. The attribute ratings revealed three factors: disciplined, innovative and gentle. Buyers with healthy background items were perceived as more disciplined than those having neutral items on the list, users of functional foods were rated as more disciplined than users of conventional target items only when the background list consisted of neutral items. Buyers of functional foods were regarded as more innovative and less gentle, but gender affected the ratings on gentle dimension. The impressions of functional food users clearly differ from those formed of users of conventional foods with a healthy image. The shopping list method performed well as an indirect method, but further studies are required to test its feasibility in measuring other food-related impressions.

Who we are and how we eat: a qualitative study of identities in food choice

OBJECTIVE

The study sought to develop a theoretical understanding of identities related to eating.

DESIGN

A grounded theory approach and open-ended, in-depth interviews were used to examine identity and eating from the perspectives of adults.

PARTICIPANTS

Seventeen middle-class, white adults (nine women, eight men) were purposely recruited to vary in gender, age, household composition, and ways of eating using convenience and snowball sampling.

DATA ANALYSIS

Interview transcripts were analyzed using the constant comparative method.

RESULTS

Identities involved in participants' food choices related to usual or preferred eating behaviors, personal traits, reference groups, and social categories. Participants varied in the number, type, and complexity of identities involved in eating. Identities were reported to be both stable and dynamic over time and were shaped by participants' life course experiences. Participants varied in the attention they paid to evaluation and monitoring of identities related to eating, the extent to which they enacted identities in eating, and how they managed identity conflicts.

IMPLICATIONS

The concept of identity may help researchers understand food choice processes and assist practitioners in recognizing the multiple meanings that people bring to and derive from eating.

Differences in eating pattern labels between maintainers and nonmaintainers in the Women's Health Initiative

OBJECTIVE

To describe how a sample of women in the Women's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial (WHIDM) labeled a healthy eating pattern and to compare these labels to their dietary maintenance.

DESIGN

Participants completed a food frequency questionnaire and were divided into two maintenance groups, based on the percentage of energy derived from fat in their diets. Individual, semistructured interviews with the same subjects elicited information on labels they use to describe a healthy eating pattern.

SUBJECTS/SETTINGS

Subjects were 100 postmenopausal women, 50 to 79 years of age, free of breast and colorectal cancer, and participating in a dietary intervention that consisted of 20% or less energy from fat.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Percentage of energy from fat in the diet and labels used to define a healthy eating pattern.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

The label "consistent/patterned" was a predictor of dietary nonmaintenance (p <.05).

IMPLICATIONS

Future studies should use this information to re-educate nonmaintainers on compliance issues.

How are consumers of low-fat and high-fat diets perceived by those with lower and higher fat intake?

Dietary social stereotypes may hinder dietary change. The aim of this study was to measure stereotypes attributed to consumers of low-fat and high-fat diets, and to investigate if stereotype attribution differed with subjects' fat intake. A sample of 100 subjects completed a 24-h dietary recall for the estimation of macronutrient intake, and then completed a questionnaire which assessed the stereotypes associated with a low-fat and a high-fat diet. The low-fat diet was associated with a "healthy", "slim", "fit" and "sporty" person, who was "intelligent", "middle class" and "female". Conversely, the high-fat diet was associated with an "unhealthy", "overweight", "unfit" and "inactive" person, who was "unintelligent", "working class", "smoking" and "male". Followers of the low-fat diet were seen as "serious" and "highly strung", while followers of the high-fat diet were seen as "fun-loving" and "happy". However, positive stereotypes were the predominant descriptors of consumers of the low-fat diet, while negative stereotypes were the predominant descriptors of consumers of the high-fat diet by both men and women. Older people were more likely to choose negative descriptors for a follower of the low-fat diet. Subjects were grouped according to their own fat intake. A high-fat (>33% fat energy) group selected more positive and negative stereotypes to describe high- and low-fat diet consumers, respectively, than did their low-fat counterparts (<33% fat energy). Choice of "happy" to describe a follower of a high-fat diet had four-fold higher odds for the high-fat group. The social meaning and values associated with food choices require further investigation. Health education may need to redress some of these stereotypes.

Adherence to dietary regimens. 1: An overview of research

In recent government reports, scientists have highlighted the link between diet and health and have concluded that dietary changes could reduce risks for some major chronic illnesses (ie, cancer and cardiovascular disease). As a result, the feasibility of lasting dietary change has become a central concern. Despite mixed findings from dietary adherence studies, there is evidence that meaningful dietary modification and adherence are possible, although not easily accomplished. Psychological, cultural, environmental, and behavioral factors exert an influence on whether individuals try to change their eating habits. Given the complex interaction between these factors, it is not surprising that education alone rarely produces lasting change. To develop comprehensive approaches to dietary management, practitioners must integrate theoretical and empirical information across a number of fields. In addition to focusing on individual behavior change, the authors suggest, those concerned with the nation's health should give serious consideration to the possibility of changes at the policy level.