Immobilization of proteins via arginine residues

Immobilized Carbonic Anhydrase on Hollow Fiber Membranes Accelerates CO(2) Removal from Blood

Current artificial lungs and respiratory assist devices designed for carbon dioxide removal (CO(2)R) are limited in their efficiency due to the relatively small partial pressure difference across gas exchange membranes. To offset this underlying diffusional challenge, bioactive hollow fiber membranes (HFMs) increase the carbon dioxide diffusional gradient through the immobilized enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA), which converts bicarbonate to CO(2) directly at the HFM surface. In this study, we tested the impact of CA-immobilization on HFM CO(2) removal efficiency and thromboresistance in blood. Fiber surface modification with radio frequency glow discharge (RFGD) introduced hydroxyl groups, which were activated by 1M CNBr while 1.5M TEA was added drop wise over the activation time course, then incubation with a CA solution covalently linked the enzyme to the surface. The bioactive HFMs were then potted in a model gas exchange device (0.0084 m(2)) and tested in a recirculation loop with a CO(2) inlet of 50mmHg under steady blood flow. Using an esterase activity assay, CNBr chemistry with TEA resulted in 0.99U of enzyme activity, a 3.3 fold increase in immobilized CA activity compared to our previous method. These bioactive HFMs demonstrated 108 ml/min/m(2) CO(2) removal rate, marking a 36% increase compared to unmodified HFMs (p < 0.001). Thromboresistance of CA-modified HFMs was assessed in terms of adherent platelets on surfaces by using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Results indicated HFMs with CA modification had 95% less platelet deposition compared to unmodified HFM (p < 0.01). Overall these findings revealed increased CO(2) removal can be realized through bioactive HFMs, enabling a next generation of more efficient CO(2) removal intravascular and paracorporeal respiratory assist devices.

Strategies for improving the functionality of an affinity bioreactor

Heparin employed in extracorporeal blood circulation (ECBC) procedures (e.g. open heart operations) often leads to a high incidence of bleeding complications. Protamine employed in heparin neutralization, on the other hand, can cause severe adverse reactions. We previously developed an approach that could prevent both heparin- and protamine-induced toxic side effects concomitantly. This approach consisted of placing a hollow fiber-based bioreactor device containing immobilized protamine (termed a "protamine bioreactor") at the distal end of the ECBC procedure. This protamine bioreactor would remove heparin after heparin served its anticoagulant purpose in the ECBC device, thereby eliminating heparin-induced bleeding risks. In addition, this protamine bioreactor would prevent protamine from entering the patients, thereby aborting any protamine-induced toxic effects. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have successfully demonstrated the feasibility of this approach. Despite promises, early findings also revealed two shortcomings that must be overcome for the protamine bioreactor to be applied clinically. The first drawback was that the cyanate ester linkages, involved in conjugating protamine to the bioreactor device, were unstable and prone to hydrolysis, resulting in the leakage of a significant amount of protamine into circulation during application of the protamine bioreactor. The second deficiency was that the capacity of the protamine bioreactor in heparin removal was rather low, owing to the limited surface area of the hollow fibers for protamine immobilization and subsequently heparin adsorption. In this paper, we present novel strategies to overcome these two limitations. A new conjugation method based on the use of 4-(oxyacetyl)phenoxyacetic acid (OAPA) as the activating reagent was employed to yield stable linkages, via the abundant arginine residues of protamine, onto the hollow fibers. Results showed that while the amount of protamine immobilized on each gram of fibers was relatively comparable between the OAPA and the previous CNBr activation methods (7.45 mg/g versus 7.69 mg/g fibers), there was virtually no detectable leaching of immobilized protamine from the bioreactor by the OAPA method, comparing to 35% leaching of protamine by the previous CNBr method following 72 h of storage of the bioreactor in PBS buffer at 37 degrees C. To improve the capacity and functionality of the protamine bioreactor, two novel approaches were adopted. Long chain and high molecular weight poly-lysine was linked to the hollow fibers, prior to protamine coupling, to create multiple layers of immobilized protamine for subsequent heparin adsorption. In addition, a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chain was inserted between protamine and the hollow fibers to yield a three-dimensional, free dynamic motion for immobilized protamine. Preliminary observations indicated that a four- to five-fold enhancement in heparin adsorption was attained by utilizing each of these new approaches. Aside from their current use, these new strategies can also be employed generically to improve the functionality of any affinity-type bioreactor. Indeed, efforts have been made recently in utilizing these approaches to develop a clinically usable GPIIb/IIIa bioreactor for the treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)-an autoimmune disease.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of a pyoverdin-beta-lactam conjugate: a new type of arginine-specific cross-linking in aqueous solution

Arginine specific reagents such as phenylglyoxal and other alpha-dioxo compounds react with arginine side chains by forming adducts with a stoichiometry of 2:1 or a mixture of 2:1 and 1:1. These adducts are labile in neutral and slightly alkaline aqueous solution. We developed a new type of cross-linking reaction with aliphatic beta-dioxo compounds. They can be used for the well-defined, irreversible covalent attachment of molecules carrying a primary amino group to arginyl residues of water soluble peptides. The reaction proceeds under mild conditions in aqueous solution, essentially without the formation of side products. A pyoverdin-cephalexin conjugate was synthesized in order to promote its cellular uptake by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Preliminary biological investigations of the conjugate indicated that it enters the bacterial cell via the pyoverdin-mediated iron uptake pathway.

Lysine-329 of murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase: possible involvement in the template-primer binding function

Treatment of murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase (MuLV RT) with 4-(oxoacetyl)-phenoxyacetic acid (OAPA) results in the loss of DNA polymerase as well as template-primer binding activity but has no effect on the RT-associated RNase-H activity. Binding stoichiometry revealed that approximately 3 mol of OAPA bound per mole of enzyme, when complete enzyme activation occurred. However, in the presence of template-primer, OAPA does not abolish polymerase activity and 2 mol of OAPA remains bound to 1 mol of enzyme. This observation suggests that only one OAPA reactive site is responsible for the loss of polymerase activity. This site was located on a single tryptic peptide by comparing the maps of the native enzyme and the enzyme treated with OAPA in the presence and absence of template-primer. The appearance of a new peptide peak eluting at 125 min from a C-18 reverse-phase column was consistently noted in the tryptic digest of enzyme treated with OAPA. This peak was absent in tryptic peptides made from the control enzyme or the enzyme protein that was treated with OAPA in the presence of activated DNA or synthetic template-primers. Amino acid composition and sequence analyses of this peptide revealed that it spanned residues 312-342 in the primary amino acid sequence of MuLV RT. Since this peptide does not contain arginine residues and Lys-329 exhibited resistance to tryptic digestion, we conclude that Lys-329 is the target of OAPA action.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Affinity chromatography using protein immobilized via arginine residues: purification of ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolases

4-(Oxoacetyl)phenoxyacetic acid (OAPA) forms a stable, covalent bond between its glyoxal group and the guanidino group of arginine and arginine derivatives [Duerksen, P. J., & Wilkinson, K. D. (1987) Anal. Biochem. 160, 444-454]. Studies were carried out to determine the chemical nature of this linkage, and the structure of the stable adduct between OAPA and methylguanidine was elucidated. The stable product results from an internal oxidation-reduction of the Schiff base adduct to form a cyclic alpha-aminoamide, 4-[4-(carboxymethoxy)phenyl]-2-(methylimino)-5-oxoimidazolidine. OAPA coupled to polyacrylamide beads was used to immobilize ubiquitin via its arginine residues, and the resulting affinity support was shown to specifically and reversibly bind a previously described enzyme, ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase [Pickart, C. M., & Rose, I. A. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 7903-7910]. The resin was then used to isolate three newly identified ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolytic activities, which did not bind to ubiquitin immobilized via lysine residues. Significant purification was achieved in each case, and one isozyme was further purified to homogeneity.