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Mannaioli G, Ansani A, Coppola C, Lombardi Vallauri E. Vagueness as an implicit-encoding persuasive strategy: an experimental approach. Cogn Process 2024; 25:205-227. [PMID: 38285278 PMCID: PMC11106197 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-023-01171-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
The paper provides novel theoretical and experimental perspectives on the functioning of linguistic vagueness as an implicit persuasive strategy. It presents an operative definition of pragmatically marked vagueness, referring to vague expressions whose interpretation is not retrievable by recipients. The phenomenon is illustrated via numerous examples of its use in predominantly persuasive texts (i.e., advertising and political propaganda) in different languages. The psycholinguistic functioning of vague expressions is then illustrated by the results of a self-paced reading task experiment. Data showing shorter reading times associated with markedly vague expressions as compared to expressions that are either (a) lexically more precise or (b) made precise by the context suggest that the former are interpreted in a shallow way, without searching for and/or retrieving exact referents. These results support the validity of a differentiation between context-supported vs. non-supported vague expressions. Furthermore, validation of using marked vagueness as a persuasive implicit strategy which reduces epistemic vigilance is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Mannaioli
- Department of Philosophy, Communication, and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Ansani
- Department of Philosophy, Communication, and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
- Department of Music, Art, and Culture Studies, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Claudia Coppola
- Department of Philosophy, Communication, and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy.
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2
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Pighin S, Filimon F, Tentori K. The impact of problem domain on Bayesian inferences: A systematic investigation. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:735-751. [PMID: 38200204 PMCID: PMC11111539 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01497-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Sparse (and occasionally contradictory) evidence exists regarding the impact of domain on probabilistic updating, some of which suggests that Bayesian word problems with medical content may be especially challenging. The present research aims to address this gap in knowledge through three pre-registered online studies, which involved a total of 2,238 participants. Bayesian word problems were related to one of three domains: medical, daily-life, and abstract. In the first two cases, problems presented realistic content and plausible numerical information, while in the latter, problems contained explicitly imaginary elements. Problems across domains were matched in terms of all relevant statistical values and, as much as possible, wording. Studies 1 and 2 utilized the same set of problems, but different response elicitation methods (i.e., an open-ended and a multiple-choice question, respectively). Study 3 involved a larger number of participants per condition and a smaller set of problems to more thoroughly investigate the magnitude of differences between the domains. There was a generally low rate of correct responses (17.2%, 17.4%, and 14.3% in Studies 1, 2, and 3, respectively), consistent with accuracy levels commonly observed in the literature for this specific task with online samples. Nonetheless, a small but significant difference between domains was observed: participants' accuracy did not differ between medical and daily-life problems, while it was significantly higher in corresponding abstract problems. These results suggest that medical problems are not inherently more difficult to solve, but rather that performance is improved with abstract problems for which participants cannot draw from their background knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Pighin
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini n. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy.
| | - Flavia Filimon
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini n. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Katya Tentori
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini n. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
- Center for Medical Sciences (CISMed), University of Trento, Trento, Italy
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3
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Celar L, Byrne RMJ. How people reason with counterfactual and causal explanations for Artificial Intelligence decisions in familiar and unfamiliar domains. Mem Cognit 2023; 51:1481-1496. [PMID: 36964302 PMCID: PMC10520145 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01407-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
Few empirical studies have examined how people understand counterfactual explanations for other people's decisions, for example, "if you had asked for a lower amount, your loan application would have been approved". Yet many current Artificial Intelligence (AI) decision support systems rely on counterfactual explanations to improve human understanding and trust. We compared counterfactual explanations to causal ones, i.e., "because you asked for a high amount, your loan application was not approved", for an AI's decisions in a familiar domain (alcohol and driving) and an unfamiliar one (chemical safety) in four experiments (n = 731). Participants were shown inputs to an AI system, its decisions, and an explanation for each decision; they attempted to predict the AI's decisions, or to make their own decisions. Participants judged counterfactual explanations more helpful than causal ones, but counterfactuals did not improve the accuracy of their predictions of the AI's decisions more than causals (Experiment 1). However, counterfactuals improved the accuracy of participants' own decisions more than causals (Experiment 2). When the AI's decisions were correct (Experiments 1 and 2), participants considered explanations more helpful and made more accurate judgements in the familiar domain than in the unfamiliar one; but when the AI's decisions were incorrect, they considered explanations less helpful and made fewer accurate judgements in the familiar domain than the unfamiliar one, whether they predicted the AI's decisions (Experiment 3a) or made their own decisions (Experiment 3b). The results corroborate the proposal that counterfactuals provide richer information than causals, because their mental representation includes more possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenart Celar
- School of Psychology and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ruth M J Byrne
- School of Psychology and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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4
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Being ostensive (reply to commentaries on "Expression unleashed"). Behav Brain Sci 2023; 46:e20. [PMID: 36799045 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x22001728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
One of our main goals with "Expression unleashed" was to highlight the distinctive, ostensive nature of human communication, and the many roles that ostension can play in human behavior and society. The commentaries we received forced us to be more precise about several aspects of this thesis. At the same time, no commentary challenged the central idea that the manifest diversity of human expression is underpinned by a common cognitive unity. Our reply is organized around six issues: (1) languages and their cultural evolution; (2) the pervasiveness of expression in human behavior; (3) artificial intelligence and ostensive communication; (4) communication in other animals; (5) the ecology and evolution of ostensive communication; and (6) biolinguistics and pragmatics.
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Barnett SA, Griffiths TL, Hawkins RD. A Pragmatic Account of the Weak Evidence Effect. OPEN MIND 2022; 6:169-182. [DOI: 10.1162/opmi_a_00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Language is not only used for neutral information; we often seek to persuade by arguing in favor of a particular view. Persuasion raises a number of challenges for classical accounts of belief updating, as information cannot be taken at face value. How should listeners account for a speaker’s “hidden agenda” when incorporating new information? Here, we extend recent probabilistic models of recursive social reasoning to allow for persuasive goals and show that our model provides a pragmatic account for why weakly favorable arguments may backfire, a phenomenon known as the weak evidence effect. Critically, this model predicts a systematic relationship between belief updates and expectations about the information source: weak evidence should only backfire when speakers are expected to act under persuasive goals and prefer the strongest evidence. We introduce a simple experimental paradigm called the Stick Contest to measure the extent to which the weak evidence effect depends on speaker expectations, and show that a pragmatic listener model accounts for the empirical data better than alternative models. Our findings suggest further avenues for rational models of social reasoning to illuminate classical decision-making phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A. Barnett
- Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Thomas L. Griffiths
- Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Robert D. Hawkins
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
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Baratgin J, Godin P, Jamet F. How the Custom Suppresses the Endowment Effect: Exchange Paradigm in Kanak Country. Front Psychol 2022; 12:785721. [PMID: 35145459 PMCID: PMC8822236 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.785721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, Knetsch's exchange paradigm is analyzed from the perspective of pragmatics and social norms. In this paradigm the participant, at the beginning of the experiment, receives an object from the experimenter and at the end, the same experimenter offers to exchange the received object for an equivalent object. The observed refusal to exchange is called the endowment effect. We argue that this effect comes from an implicature made by the participant about the experimenter's own expectations. The participant perceives the received item as a gift, or as a present, from the experimenter that cannot be exchanged as stipulated by the social norms of western politeness common to both the experimenter and the participant. This implicature, however, should not be produced by participants from Kanak culture for whom the perceived gift of a good will be interpreted as a first act of exchange based on gift and counter-gift. This exchange is a natural, frequent, balanced, and indispensable act for all Kanak social bonds whether private or public. Kanak people also know the French social norms that they apply in their interactions with French people living in New Caledonia. In our experiment, we show that when the exchange paradigm takes place in a French context, with a French experimenter and in French, the Kanak participant is subject to the endowment effect in the same way as a French participant. On the other hand, when the paradigm is carried out in a Kanak context, with a Kanak experimenter and in the vernacular language, or in a Kanak context that approaches the ceremonial of the custom, the endowment effect is no longer observed. The same number of Kanak participants accept or refuse to exchange the endowed item. These results, in addition to providing a new explanation for the endowment effect, highlight the great flexibility of decisions according to social-cultural context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Baratgin
- Université Paris 8, Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Saint-Denis, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies Association, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Jean Baratgin
| | - Patrice Godin
- Université de la Nouvelle Calédonie, Laboratoire TROCA, Nouméa, France
| | - Frank Jamet
- Université Paris 8, Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Saint-Denis, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies Association, Paris, France
- CY Cergy Paris Université, Paris, France
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Branchini E, Capitani E, Burro R, Savardi U, Bianchi I. Opposites in Reasoning Processes: Do We Use Them More Than We Think, but Less Than We Could? Front Psychol 2021; 12:715696. [PMID: 34512474 PMCID: PMC8426631 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.715696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Our aim in this paper is to contribute toward acknowledging the general role of opposites as an organizing principle in the human mind. We support this claim in relation to human reasoning by collecting evidence from various studies which shows that "thinking in opposites" is not only involved in formal logical thinking, but can also be applied in both deductive and inductive reasoning, as well as in problem solving. We also describe the results of a series of studies which, although they have been developed within a number of different theoretical frameworks based on various methodologies, all demonstrate that giving hints or training reasoners to think in terms of opposites improves their performance in tasks in which spontaneous thinking may lead to classic biases and impasses. Since we all possess an intuitive idea of what opposites are, prompting people to "think in opposites" is something which is undoubtedly within everyone's reach and in the final section, we discuss the potential of this strategy and suggest possible future research directions of systematic testing the benefits that might arise from the use of this technique in contexts beyond those tested thus far. Ascertaining the conditions in which reasoners might benefit will also help in terms of clarifying the underlying mechanisms from the point of view, for instance, of analytical, conscious processing vs. automatic, unconscious processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Branchini
- Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Elena Capitani
- Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Roberto Burro
- Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Ugo Savardi
- Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Ivana Bianchi
- Department of Humanities (Philosophy and Human Sciences Section), University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy
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Numbers do not add up! The pragmatic approach to the framing of medical treatments. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2021. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500007750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe risky choice framing effect disclosed that presenting data in a loss scenario lead decision-makers towards risky choices. Conversely, a gain scenario prevents them from taking a risk. Framing effect robustness has been widely confirmed by psychological literature. However, the framing of medical treatments, based on McNeil et al. (1982) paradigm, raised both methodological doubts and contrasting evidence. Our research aimed to investigate the presence and the nature of the framing effect in the McNeil et al. (1982) paradigm. In particular, we thought that the obtained switch of preferences across frames was due to a misleading formulation of the data given in a negative cumulative frequency format. We conducted three studies: (1) we replicated McNeil et al.’s (1982) original study (N=150) with medicine (n=50), statistics (n=50) and lay (n=50) students; (2) we tested (N=180) our hypothesis by comparing a cumulative frequency format with an alternative version, namely a linear progression one; (3) we compared (N=430) the effect of different formats (cumulative frequency, linear progression and interval frequency) on choices. Our results showed that, while the framing effect is present when employing a cumulative frequency format, it disappears when using a linear progression one. Moreover, our results show that decision-makers better understand information when given in a linear progression and an interval frequency format. In the current paper, we argue that the way in which a problem is formulated plays a relevant role in the representation of the decisional task and the decision-making.
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Baratgin J, Dubois-Sage M, Jacquet B, Stilgenbauer JL, Jamet F. Pragmatics in the False-Belief Task: Let the Robot Ask the Question! Front Psychol 2020; 11:593807. [PMID: 33329255 PMCID: PMC7719623 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.593807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The poor performances of typically developing children younger than 4 in the first-order false-belief task "Maxi and the chocolate" is analyzed from the perspective of conversational pragmatics. An ambiguous question asked by an adult experimenter (perceived as a teacher) can receive different interpretations based on a search for relevance, by which children according to their age attribute different intentions to the questioner, within the limits of their own meta-cognitive knowledge. The adult experimenter tells the child the following story of object-transfer: "Maxi puts his chocolate into the green cupboard before going out to play. In his absence, his mother moves the chocolate from the green cupboard to the blue one." The child must then predict where Maxi will pick up the chocolate when he returns. To the child, the question from an adult (a knowledgeable person) may seem surprising and can be understood as a question of his own knowledge of the world, rather than on Maxi's mental representations. In our study, without any modification of the initial task, we disambiguate the context of the question by (1) replacing the adult experimenter with a humanoid robot presented as "ignorant" and "slow" but trying to learn and (2) placing the child in the role of a "mentor" (the knowledgeable person). Sixty-two typical children of 3 years-old completed the first-order false belief task "Maxi and the chocolate," either with a human or with a robot. Results revealed a significantly higher success rate in the robot condition than in the human condition. Thus, young children seem to fail because of the pragmatic difficulty of the first-order task, which causes a difference of interpretation between the young child and the experimenter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Baratgin
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
| | - Marion Dubois-Sage
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
| | - Baptiste Jacquet
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Stilgenbauer
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
- Facultés Libres de Philosophie et de Psychologie (IPC), Paris, France
| | - Frank Jamet
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
- CY Cergy-Paris Université, ESPE de Versailles, Paris, France
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Task relevance effect on number/shape conflict detection in the number-matching task: An ERP study. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2020; 208:103126. [PMID: 32659507 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
It is debatable whether the task relevance effect on a conflict occurs in the detection or in the inhibition underlying sequential matching. To explore this issue, three types of number pairs, identical (e.g., 12, 12), conserved (e.g., 12, ), and non-conserved (e.g., 12, 15) pairs, were displayed to be judged as perceptually (identical shape condition) or quantitatively (identical value condition) the same. Both error rates and RTs for the three types of number pairs showed different patterns to detect perceptual mismatch in the identical shape condition and number inequivalence in the identical value conditions. The event-related potential (ERP) results showed that increased N200 and N400 as well as decreased P300 were triggered by the conserved and non-conserved pairs in contrast to identical pairs in the identical shape condition and by the non-conserved pairs relative to the conserved and identical pairs in the identical value condition. These results showed that task-relevant mismatches were attended to and detected in both conditions. Therefore, for the task-relevance effect on a conflict, attention is selectively directed to task-relevant features rather than inhibiting task-irrelevant conflict.
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Cross-linguistic frequency and the learnability of semantics: Artificial language learning studies of evidentiality. Cognition 2020; 197:104194. [PMID: 31986353 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is often assumed that cross-linguistically more prevalent distinctions are easier to learn (Typological Prevalence Hypothesis; TPH). Prior work supports this idea in phonology, morphology and syntax but has not addressed semantics. Using Artificial Language Learning experiments with adults, we test predictions made by the TPH about the relative learnability of semantic distinctions in the domain of evidentiality, i.e., the linguistic encoding of information source. As the TPH predicted, when exposed to miniature evidential morphological systems, adult speakers of English whose language does not encode evidentiality grammatically learned the typologically most prevalent system (marking indirect, reportative information) better compared to less-attested systems (Experiments 1-2). Similar patterns were observed when non-linguistic symbols were used to encode evidential distinctions (Experiment 3). Our data support the conjecture that some semantic distinctions are marked preferentially and acquired more easily compared to others in both language and other symbolic systems.
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Mamede S, de Carvalho-Filho MA, de Faria RMD, Franci D, Nunes MDPT, Ribeiro LMC, Biegelmeyer J, Zwaan L, Schmidt HG. 'Immunising' physicians against availability bias in diagnostic reasoning: a randomised controlled experiment. BMJ Qual Saf 2020; 29:550-559. [PMID: 31988257 PMCID: PMC7362774 DOI: 10.1136/bmjqs-2019-010079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background Diagnostic errors have often been attributed to biases in physicians’ reasoning. Interventions to ‘immunise’ physicians against bias have focused on improving reasoning processes and have largely failed. Objective To investigate the effect of increasing physicians’ relevant knowledge on their susceptibility to availability bias. Design, settings and participants Three-phase multicentre randomised experiment with second-year internal medicine residents from eight teaching hospitals in Brazil. Interventions Immunisation: Physicians diagnosed one of two sets of vignettes (either diseases associated with chronic diarrhoea or with jaundice) and compared/contrasted alternative diagnoses with feedback. Biasing phase (1 week later): Physicians were biased towards either inflammatory bowel disease or viral hepatitis. Diagnostic performance test: All physicians diagnosed three vignettes resembling inflammatory bowel disease, three resembling hepatitis (however, all with different diagnoses). Physicians who increased their knowledge of either chronic diarrhoea or jaundice 1 week earlier were expected to resist the bias attempt. Main outcome measurements Diagnostic accuracy, measured by test score (range 0–1), computed for subjected-to-bias and not-subjected-to-bias vignettes diagnosed by immunised and not-immunised physicians. Results Ninety-one residents participated in the experiment. Diagnostic accuracy differed on subjected-to-bias vignettes, with immunised physicians performing better than non-immunised physicians (0.40 vs 0.24; difference in accuracy 0.16 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.27); p=0.004), but not on not-subjected-to-bias vignettes (0.36 vs 0.41; difference −0.05 (95% CI −0.17 to 0.08); p=0.45). Bias only hampered non-immunised physicians, who performed worse on subjected-to-bias than not-subjected-to-bias vignettes (difference −0.17 (95% CI −0.28 to −0.05); p=0.005); immunised physicians’ accuracy did not differ (p=0.56). Conclusions An intervention directed at increasing knowledge of clinical findings that discriminate between similar-looking diseases decreased physicians’ susceptibility to availability bias, reducing diagnostic errors, in a simulated setting. Future research needs to examine the degree to which the intervention benefits other disease clusters and performance in clinical practice. Trial registration number 68745917.1.1001.0068.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia Mamede
- Institute of Medical Education Research Rotterdam, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands .,Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Marco Antonio de Carvalho-Filho
- Internal Medicine, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Center for Education Development and Research in the Health Professions, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rosa Malena Delbone de Faria
- Propeudeutics, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.,Education and Research Center, Santa Casa BH, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniel Franci
- Internal Medicine, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Laura Zwaan
- Institute of Medical Education Research Rotterdam, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Henk G Schmidt
- Institute of Medical Education Research Rotterdam, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands.,Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
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Macchi L, Caravona L, Poli F, Bagassi M, Franchella MAG. Speak your mind and I will make it right: the case of “selection task”. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2019.1707207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Macchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Caravona
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Francesco Poli
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Bagassi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
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Machine Learning: From Expert Systems to Deep Learning. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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15
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The Prehistory of Cognitive Science. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Preface. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Bibliography. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Bayesianism in Cognitive Science. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Object Perception and Folk Physics. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Glossary. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Strategies for Brain Mapping. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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22
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Modules and Architectures. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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23
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Introduction. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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24
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The Discipline Matures: Three Milestones. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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25
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Models of Language Learning. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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26
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Applying Dynamical Systems Theory to Model the Mind. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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27
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Exploring Mindreading. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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28
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Robotics: From GOFAI to Situated Cognition and Behavior-Based Robotics. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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29
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The Cognitive Science of Consciousness. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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30
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The Turn to the Brain. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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31
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Index for Cognitive Science (3rd edition). Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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32
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Mindreading: Advanced Topics. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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33
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Physical Symbol Systems and the Language of Thought. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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34
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Looking Ahead: Challenges and Opportunities. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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35
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Neural Networks and Distributed Information Processing. Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/9781108339216.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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36
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Macchi L, Poli F, Caravona L, Vezzoli M, Franchella MAG, Bagassi M. How to Get Rid of the Belief Bias: Boosting Analytical Thinking via Pragmatics. EUROPES JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 15:595-613. [PMID: 33680148 PMCID: PMC7909186 DOI: 10.5964/ejop.v15i3.1794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The previous research attempts to reduce the influence of the belief bias on deductive thinking have often been unsuccessful and, when they succeeded, they failed to replicate. In this paper, we propose a new way to see an old problem. Instead of considering the analytical abilities of the respondent, we focus on the communicative characteristics of the experimental task. By changing the pragmatics into play through a subtle manipulation of the instruction of the syllogism problem, we obtained a strong improvement in the accuracy of the performance in both untrained and trained in logic respondents. We suggest that current models of deductive thinking should be broadened to consider also communicative understanding as part of the processing of the problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Macchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Poli
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Caravona
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Michela Vezzoli
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Maria Bagassi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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37
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Graziano M. Mind/Brain and Economic Behaviour: For a Naturalised Economics. AXIOMATHES 2019; 29:237-264. [DOI: 10.1007/s10516-018-9404-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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38
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Jacquet B, Baratgin J, Jamet F. Cooperation in Online Conversations: The Response Times as a Window Into the Cognition of Language Processing. Front Psychol 2019; 10:727. [PMID: 31024385 PMCID: PMC6465606 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Measuring the cognitive cost of interpreting the meaning of sentences in a conversation is a complex task, but it is also at the core of Sperber and Wilson's Relevance Theory. In cognitive sciences, the delay between a stimulus and its response is often used as an approximation of the cognitive cost. We have noticed that such a tool had not yet been used to measure the cognitive cost of interpreting the meaning of sentences in a free-flowing and interactive conversation. The following experiment tests the ability to discriminate between sentences with a high cognitive cost and sentences with a low cognitive cost using the response time of the participants during an online conversation in a protocol inspired by the Turing Test. We have used violations of Grice's Cooperative Principle to create conditions in which sentences with a high cognitive cost would be produced. We hypothesized that response times are directly correlated to the cognitive cost required to generate implicatures from a statement. Our results are coherent with the literature in the field and shed some new light on the effect of violations on the humanness of a conversational agent. We show that violations of the maxim of Relation had a particularly important impact on response times and the perceived humanness of a conversation partner. Violations of the first maxim of Quantity and the fourth maxim of Manner had a lesser impact, and only on male participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baptiste Jacquet
- P-A-R-I-S Association, Paris, France.,Laboratoire CHArt, Université Paris VIII & EPHE, Paris, France
| | - Jean Baratgin
- P-A-R-I-S Association, Paris, France.,Laboratoire CHArt, Université Paris VIII & EPHE, Paris, France.,Institut Jean Nicod (IJN), École Normale Supérieure (ENS), Paris, France
| | - Frank Jamet
- P-A-R-I-S Association, Paris, France.,Laboratoire CHArt, Université Paris VIII & EPHE, Paris, France.,Université de Cergy-Pontoise, Cergy-Pontoise, France
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39
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Bramley NR, Gerstenberg T, Tenenbaum JB, Gureckis TM. Intuitive experimentation in the physical world. Cogn Psychol 2018; 105:9-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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40
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Goodwin GP, Johnson-Laird PN. The Truth of Conditional Assertions. Cogn Sci 2018; 42:2502-2533. [PMID: 30159915 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Given a basic conditional of the form, If A then C, individuals usually list three cases as possible: A and C, not-A and not-C, not-A and C. This result corroborates the theory of mental models. By contrast, individuals often judge that the conditional is true only in the case of A and C, and that cases of not-A are irrelevant to its truth or falsity. This result corroborates other theories of conditionals. To resolve the discrepancy, we devised two new tasks: the "collective" truth task, in which participants judged whether sets of assertions about a specific individual, such as: If A then C, not-A, C, could all be true at the same time; and one in which participants judged the truth of conditional predictions about specific future events. The results consistently matched the three possibilities, thereby corroborating the model theory. They also showed a massive violation of the probability calculus in estimates of the probabilities of the four cases in the partition of conditionals (A and C, A and not-C, not-A and C, and not-A and not-C), which summed to over 200%.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - P N Johnson-Laird
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University.,Department of Psychology, New York University
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41
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Stanovich KE. RATIONALITY AND TYPE 1 PROCESSING. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.131.2.0231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Keith E. Stanovich
- Department Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, 252 Bloor St. West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1V6, E-mail:
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42
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Macchi L, Bagassi M. A NEW TEST FOR RATIONALITY: CONTRIBUTIONS AND OUTSTANDING ISSUES. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.131.2.0237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Macchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza Dell’Ateneo Nuovo, 1, 20126 Milano, Italy, E-mail:
| | - Maria Bagassi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza Dell’Ateneo Nuovo, 1, 20126 Milano, Italy, E-mail:
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43
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Sivan J, Curry OS, Van Lissa CJ. Excavating the Foundations: Cognitive Adaptations for Multiple Moral Domains. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-018-0154-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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44
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Fiddick L. Domains of deontic reasoning: Resolving the discrepancy between the cognitive and moral reasoning literatures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 57:447-74. [PMID: 15204136 DOI: 10.1080/02724980343000332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Deontic reasoning has been studied in two subfields of psychology: the cognitive and moral reasoning literatures. These literatures have drawn different conclusions about the nature of deontic reasoning. The consensus within the cognitive reasoning literature is that deontic reasoning is a unitary phenomenon, whereas the consensus within the moral reasoning literature is that there are different subdomains of deontic reasoning. We present evidence from a series of experiments employing the methods of both literatures suggesting that people make a systematic distinction between two types of deontic rule: social contracts and precautions. The results call into question the prevailing opinion in the cognitive reasoning literature and provide further support for both an evolutionary view of deontic reasoning and the more domain-specific perspective found in the moral reasoning literature.
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45
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Abstract
Five experiments are reported based upon Evans'(1996) inspection time paradigm in which subjects are required to solve computer-presented Wason Selection Task problems while simultaneously using a mouse to indicate which card is currently under consideration. It had previously been found that selected cards were inspected for considerably longer than were non-selected cards, and this was taken as support for the existence of pre-conscious heuristics that direct attention towards relevant aspects of a problem. The first experiment reported here fully replicated this effect. However, by systematically varying the task format in subsequent experiments, the effect was found to diminish, disappear, or even reverse. The change in effect size and direction was not accompanied by any systematic variations in the subjects’ card choices, indicating that the changes in taskformat had not altered the operation of the relevance-determining heuristics. On balance, it is suggested that the inspection time effect appears to be artefactual, and the inspection time paradigm therefore does not constitute satisfactory evidence for the existence of pre-conscious heuristics.
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46
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Evans JS, Legrenzi P, Girotto V. The Influence of Linguistic Form on Reasoning: The Case of Matching Bias. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/713755805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
A well-established phenomenon in reasoning research is matching bias: a tendency to select information that matches the lexical content of propositional statements, regardless of the logically critical presence of negations. Previous research suggested, however, that the effect might be restricted to reasoning with conditional statements. This paper reports two experiments in which participants were required to construct or identify true and false cases of propositional rules of several kinds, including universal statements, disjunctions, and negated conjunctions. Matching bias was observed across all rule types but largely restricted to problems where participants were required to falsify rather than to verify the rules. A third experiment showed a similar generalization across linguistic forms in the Wason selection task with only if conditionals substituted for universals. The results are discussed with reference to contemporary theories of propositional reasoning.
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47
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Fiddick L, Brase GL, Cosmides L, Tooby J. Rethinking relevance: Repetition priming reveals the psychological reality of adaptive specializations for reasoning. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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48
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Legrenzi P, Johnson-Laird P. Vittorio Girotto. THINKING & REASONING 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/13546783.2016.1225810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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49
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Skovgaard-Olsen N, Singmann H, Klauer KC. Relevance and Reason Relations. Cogn Sci 2016; 41 Suppl 5:1202-1215. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Niels Skovgaard-Olsen
- Department of Philosophy; University of Konstanz
- Department of Psychology; Albert Ludwigs Universität Freiburg
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50
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Out of sight, out of mind: Matching bias underlies confirmatory visual search. Atten Percept Psychophys 2016; 79:498-507. [PMID: 28000157 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-016-1259-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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