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Delmer D, Dixon RA, Keegstra K, Mohnen D. The plant cell wall-dynamic, strong, and adaptable-is a natural shapeshifter. THE PLANT CELL 2024; 36:1257-1311. [PMID: 38301734 PMCID: PMC11062476 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koad325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Mythology is replete with good and evil shapeshifters, who, by definition, display great adaptability and assume many different forms-with several even turning themselves into trees. Cell walls certainly fit this definition as they can undergo subtle or dramatic changes in structure, assume many shapes, and perform many functions. In this review, we cover the evolution of knowledge of the structures, biosynthesis, and functions of the 5 major cell wall polymer types that range from deceptively simple to fiendishly complex. Along the way, we recognize some of the colorful historical figures who shaped cell wall research over the past 100 years. The shapeshifter analogy emerges more clearly as we examine the evolving proposals for how cell walls are constructed to allow growth while remaining strong, the complex signaling involved in maintaining cell wall integrity and defense against disease, and the ways cell walls adapt as they progress from birth, through growth to maturation, and in the end, often function long after cell death. We predict the next century of progress will include deciphering cell type-specific wall polymers; regulation at all levels of polymer production, crosslinks, and architecture; and how walls respond to developmental and environmental signals to drive plant success in diverse environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Delmer
- Section of Plant Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Richard A Dixon
- BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Kenneth Keegstra
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA
| | - Debra Mohnen
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Fragkostefanakis S, Kaloudas D, Kalaitzis P. Pyridine 2,4-Dicarboxylic Acid Suppresses Tomato Seedling Growth. Front Chem 2018; 6:3. [PMID: 29441347 PMCID: PMC5797587 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyridine 2,4-dicarboxylic acid is a structural analog of 2-oxoglutarate and is known to inhibit 2-oxoglutare-dependent dioxygenases. The effect of this inhibitor in tomato seedlings grown in MS media supplied with various concentrations of PDCA was investigated, resulting in shorter roots and hypocotyls in a dose-dependent manner. The partial inhibition of growth in roots was more drastic compared to hypocotyls and was attributed to a decrease in the elongation of root and hypocotyl cells. Concentrations of 100 and 250 μM of PDCA decreased hydroxyproline content in roots while only the 250 μM treatment reduced the hydroxyproline content in shoots. Seedlings treated with 100 μM PDCA exhibited enhanced growth of hypocotyl and cotyledon cells and higher hydroxyproline content resulting in cotyledons with greater surface area. However, no alterations in hypocotyl length were observed. Prolyl 4 hydroxylases (P4Hs) are involved in the O-glycosylation of AGPs and were also highly expressed during seedling growth. Moreover PDCA induced a decrease in the accumulation of HRGPs and particularly in AGPs-bound epitopes in a dose dependent-manner while more drastic reduction were observed in roots compared to shoots. In addition, bulged root epidermal cells were observed at the high concentration of 250 μM which is characteristic of root tissues with glycosylation defects. These results indicate that PDCA induced pleiotropic effects during seedling growth while further studies are required to better investigate the physiological significance of this 2-oxoglutarate analog. This pharmacological approach might be used as a tool to better understand the physiological significance of HRGPs and probably P4Hs in various growth and developmental programs in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dimitrios Kaloudas
- Horticultural Genetics, Department of Horticultural Genetics and Biotechnology, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania, Chania, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Kalaitzis
- Horticultural Genetics, Department of Horticultural Genetics and Biotechnology, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania, Chania, Greece
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Chen Y, Ye D, Held MA, Cannon MC, Ray T, Saha P, Frye AN, Mort AJ, Kieliszewski MJ. Identification of the Abundant Hydroxyproline-Rich Glycoproteins in the Root Walls of Wild-Type Arabidopsis, an ext3 Mutant Line, and Its Phenotypic Revertant. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2015; 4:85-111. [PMID: 27135319 PMCID: PMC4844335 DOI: 10.3390/plants4010085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Extensins are members of the cell wall hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) superfamily that form covalently cross-linked networks in primary cell walls. A knockout mutation in EXT3 (AT1G21310), the gene coding EXTENSIN 3 (EXT3) in Arabidopsis Landsberg erecta resulted in a lethal phenotype, although about 20% of the knockout plants have an apparently normal phenotype (ANP). In this study the root cell wall HRGP components of wild-type, ANP and the ext3 mutant seedlings were characterized by peptide fractionation of trypsin digested anhydrous hydrogen fluoride deglycosylated wall residues and by sequencing using LC-MS/MS. Several HRGPs, including EXT3, were identified in the wild-type root walls but not in walls of the ANP and lethal mutant. Indeed the ANP walls and walls of mutants displaying the lethal phenotype possessed HRGPs, but the profiles suggest that changes in the amount and perhaps type may account for the corresponding phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuning Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA.
| | - Dening Ye
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA.
| | - Michael A Held
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA.
| | - Maura C Cannon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
| | - Tui Ray
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
| | - Prasenjit Saha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
| | - Alexandra N Frye
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA.
| | - Andrew J Mort
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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Villalba JM, Córdoba F, Navas P. Ascorbate and the plasma membrane. A new view of cell growth control. Subcell Biochem 1996; 25:57-8. [PMID: 8821969 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0325-1_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J M Villalba
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Universidad de Córdoba, Spain
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Navas P, Villalba JM, Córdoba F. Ascorbate function at the plasma membrane. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1994; 1197:1-13. [PMID: 8155689 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4157(94)90016-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P Navas
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Córdoba, Spain
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Carpita NC, Gibeaut DM. Structural models of primary cell walls in flowering plants: consistency of molecular structure with the physical properties of the walls during growth. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1993; 3:1-30. [PMID: 8401598 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.1993.tb00007.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1756] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Advances in determination of polymer structure and in preservation of structure for electron microscopy provide the best view to date of how polysaccharides and structural proteins are organized into plant cell walls. The walls that form and partition dividing cells are modified chemically and structurally from the walls expanding to provide a cell with its functional form. In grasses, the chemical structure of the wall differs from that of all other flowering plant species that have been examined. Nevertheless, both types of wall must conform to the same physical laws. Cell expansion occurs via strictly regulated reorientation of each of the wall's components that first permits the wall to stretch in specific directions and then lock into final shape. This review integrates information on the chemical structure of individual polymers with data obtained from new techniques used to probe the arrangement of the polymers within the walls of individual cells. We provide structural models of two distinct types of walls in flowering plants consistent with the physical properties of the wall and its components.
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Affiliation(s)
- N C Carpita
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
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Dulberger R. Floral Polymorphisms and Their Functional Significance in the Heterostylous Syndrome. EVOLUTION AND FUNCTION OF HETEROSTYLY 1992. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-86656-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Creelman RA, Mullet JE. Water deficit modulates gene expression in growing zones of soybean seedlings. Analysis of differentially expressed cDNAs, a new beta-tubulin gene, and expression of genes encoding cell wall proteins. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1991; 17:591-608. [PMID: 1912487 DOI: 10.1007/bf00037046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
Transfer of soybean seedlings to low-water-potential vermiculite (psi w = -0.3 MPa) results in a reversible decrease in hypocotyl growth and modulation of several polysomal mRNAs (Plant Physiol 92: 205-214). We report here the isolation of two cDNA clones (pGE16 and pGE95) which correspond to genes whose mRNA levels are increased, and one cDNA clone (pGE23) which corresponds to a gene whose mRNA level is decreased in the hypocotyl zone of cell elongation by water deficit. In well-watered seedlings mRNAs hybridizing to pGE16 and pGE95 are most abundant in mature regions of the seedling, but in water-deficient seedlings mRNA levels are reduced in mature regions and enhanced in elongating regions. RNA corresponding to soybean proline-rich protein 1 (sbPRP1) shows a similar tissue distribution and response to water deficit. In contrast, in well-watered seedlings, the gene corresponding to pGE23 was highly expressed in the hypocotyl and root growing zones. Transfer of seedlings to low-water-potential vermiculite caused a rapid decrease in mRNA hybridizing to pGE23. Sequence analysis revealed that pGE23 has high homology with beta-tubulin. Water deficit also reduced the level of mRNA hybridizing to JCW1, an auxin-modulated gene, although with different kinetics. Furthermore, mRNA encoding actin, glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGPs) were down-regulated in the hypocotyl zone of elongation of seedlings exposed to water deficit. No effect of water deficit was observed on the expression of chalcone synthase. Decreased expression of beta-tubulin, actin, JCW1, HRGP and GRP and increased expression of sbPRP1, pGE95 and pGE16 in the hypocotyl zone of cell elongation could participate in the reversible growth inhibition observed in water-deficient soybean seedlings.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Creelman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843
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Lezica RP, Daleo GR, Dey PM. Lipid-Linked Sugars As Intermediates in The Biosynthesis of Complex Carbohydrates in Plants. Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2318(08)60081-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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10
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Rama Rao N, Naithani S, Jasdanwala R, Singh Y. Changes in Indoleacetic Acid Oxidase and Peroxidase Activities During Cotton Fibre Development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0044-328x(82)80078-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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van Holst GJ, Klis FM, Bouman F, Stegwee D. Changing cell-wall compositions in hypocotyls of dark-grown bean seedlings. PLANTA 1980; 149:209-212. [PMID: 24306288 DOI: 10.1007/bf00384555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/1979] [Accepted: 03/04/1980] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Hypocotyls of dark-grown 6-day-old seedlings of Phaseolus vulgaris L. proved to be sufficiently homogeneous to permit studies relating the rate of cell elongation to the composition of the primary cell walls. Whereas the levels of cellulose and uronic acids remained practically constant during and after cell extension, all other components showed major or minor changes. Cell-wall protein, as such, decreased by more than 50%, but indications are that hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein increased with a decreasing rate of cell elongation, concomitant with a rise in the degree of arabinosylation of wall-bound hydroxyproline. As cell elongation slowed down, non-cellulosic glucose accumulated, presumably in the form of a β-(1-4)glucan closely associated with cellulose. These findings confirm the notion that the primary cell wall is a highly dynamic structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J van Holst
- Plantenfysiologisch Laboratorium, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Lang W. Biosynthesis of Extensin during Normal and Light-Inhibited Elongation of Radish Hypocotyls. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1976. [DOI: 10.1016/s0044-328x(73)80006-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Leushner J, Pasternak J. Programmed synthesis of collagen during postembryonic development of the nematode Panagrellus silusiae. Dev Biol 1975; 47:68-80. [PMID: 173596 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(75)90264-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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