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Guan S, Jiang R, Meng C, Biswal B. Brain age prediction across the human lifespan using multimodal MRI data. GeroScience 2024; 46:1-20. [PMID: 37733220 PMCID: PMC10828281 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-023-00924-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Measuring differences between an individual's age and biological age with biological information from the brain have the potential to provide biomarkers of clinically relevant neurological syndromes that arise later in human life. To explore the effect of multimodal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features on the prediction of brain age, we investigated how multimodal brain imaging data improved age prediction from more imaging features of structural or functional MRI data by using partial least squares regression (PLSR) and longevity data sets (age 6-85 years). First, we found that the age-predicted values for each of these ten features ranged from high to low: cortical thickness (R = 0.866, MAE = 7.904), all seven MRI features (R = 0.8594, MAE = 8.24), four features in structural MRI (R = 0.8591, MAE = 8.24), fALFF (R = 0.853, MAE = 8.1918), gray matter volume (R = 0.8324, MAE = 8.931), three rs-fMRI feature (R = 0.7959, MAE = 9.744), mean curvature (R = 0.7784, MAE = 10.232), ReHo (R = 0.7833, MAE = 10.122), ALFF (R = 0.7517, MAE = 10.844), and surface area (R = 0.719, MAE = 11.33). In addition, the significance of the volume and size of brain MRI data in predicting age was also studied. Second, our results suggest that all multimodal imaging features, except cortical thickness, improve brain-based age prediction. Third, we found that the left hemisphere contributed more to the age prediction, that is, the left hemisphere showed a greater weight in the age prediction than the right hemisphere. Finally, we found a nonlinear relationship between the predicted age and the amount of MRI data. Combined with multimodal and lifespan brain data, our approach provides a new perspective for chronological age prediction and contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between brain disorders and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihai Guan
- College of Electronic and Information, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
- Key Laboratory of Electronic and Information Engineering, State Ethnic Affairs Commission, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Runzhou Jiang
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731, China
- Medical Equipment Department, Xiangyang No. 1 People's Hospital, Xiangyang, 441000, China
| | - Chun Meng
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731, China
| | - Bharat Biswal
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731, China.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA.
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Lamb DG, Correa LN, Seider TR, Mosquera DM, Rodriguez JA, Salazar L, Schwartz ZJ, Cohen RA, Falchook AD, Heilman KM. The aging brain: Movement speed and spatial control. Brain Cogn 2016; 109:105-111. [PMID: 27658213 PMCID: PMC6557661 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES With aging, people commonly develop motor slowing (bradykinesia). Although this slowness with aging may be entirely related to degradation of the cerebral networks important in motor programing, it is possible that, at least in part, it may be a learned procedure for enhancing the accuracy and/or precision of movements. The goal of this study is to test these contradictory hypotheses. METHODS Twenty-four healthy adults, 12 younger than age 26 and 12 older than age 65 were asked to make alternative marks with a pen between a card centered in front of them and a series of circles distributed across a page. Performance was timed, and participants were instructed to complete the task as quickly as possible while not sacrificing accuracy for speed. The circle sizes and hand used varied by trial. RESULTS The older adults performed the task more slowly for all target circle diameters. As the circles decreased in size, the younger adults performed the task more rapidly than did the older participants, but the younger participants also had a greater decline in accuracy. CONCLUSIONS During this aiming task, healthy older adults were less likely than younger adults to sacrifice accuracy for speed. Thus, at least in part, their slowing may be a learned adaptive strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damon G Lamb
- Malcom Randall Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Neuropsychological Studies, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Cognitive Aging and Memory Center, Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lauren N Correa
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Neuropsychological Studies, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Talia R Seider
- Cognitive Aging and Memory Center, Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Diana M Mosquera
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Julio A Rodriguez
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Ponce School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ponce, Puerto Rico
| | - Liliana Salazar
- Malcom Randall Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Zared J Schwartz
- Center for Neuropsychological Studies, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Ronald A Cohen
- Cognitive Aging and Memory Center, Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Adam D Falchook
- Malcom Randall Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Cognitive Aging and Memory Center, Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Kenneth M Heilman
- Malcom Randall Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Neuropsychological Studies, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Cognitive Aging and Memory Center, Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Raw RK, Wilkie RM, White A, Williams JHG, Mon-Williams M. The 'Goldilocks Zone': getting the measure of manual asymmetries. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128322. [PMID: 26023774 PMCID: PMC4449126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Some studies have shown that manual asymmetries decrease in older age. These results have often been explained with reference to models of reduced hemispheric specialisation. An alternative explanation, however, is that hand differences are subtle, and capturing them requires tasks that yield optimal performance with both hands. Whereas the hemispheric specialisation account implies that reduced manual asymmetries should be reliably observed in older adults, the ‘measurement difficulty’ account suggests that manual asymmetries will be hard to detect unless a task has just the right level of difficulty—i.e. within the ‘Goldilocks Zone’, where it is not too easy or too hard, but just right. Experiment One tested this hypothesis and found that manual asymmetries were only detected when participants performed in this zone; specifically, performance on a tracing task was only superior in the preferred hand when task constraints were high (i.e. fast speed tracing). Experiment Two used three different tasks to examine age differences in manual asymmetries; one task produced no asymmetries, whilst two tasks revealed asymmetries in both younger and older groups (with poorer overall performance in the old group across all tasks). Experiment Three revealed task-dependent asymmetries in both age groups, but highlighted further detection difficulties linked with the metric of performance and compensatory strategies used by participants. Results are discussed with reference to structural learning theory, whereby we suggest that the processes of inter-manual transfer lead to relatively small performance differences between the hands (despite a strong phenomenological sense of performance disparities).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael K. Raw
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M. Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Alan White
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Justin H. G. Williams
- Division of Applied Health Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Clinical Research Centre, Royal Cornhill Hospital, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
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Causby R, Reed L, McDonnell M, Hillier S. Use of objective psychomotor tests in health professionals. Percept Mot Skills 2014; 118:765-804. [PMID: 25068745 DOI: 10.2466/25.27.pms.118k27w2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Evaluation of psychomotor skills is undertaken in a number of broad contexts. This includes testing of health professional populations as a measure of innate ability, to evaluate skill acquisition, or to compare professions. However, the use of psychomotor tests is frequently confounded by a lack of understanding of a particular tool's psychometric properties, strengths, and weaknesses. To identify and appraise the most commonly used tests on health professional populations, 86 articles were reviewed and the top nine tests identified. Few tests have had sufficient validity or reliability testing on health professionals. Based on the evidence available, use of the Grooved Pegboard Test, the Purdue Pegboard Test, or the Finger Tapping Test is recommended for the evaluation of dexterity in a health professional population; however, this choice may be dependent on the task(s) to which findings are generalised. More rigorous evaluation of validity and other psychometric properties is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Causby
- 1 International Centre for Allied Health Evidence, University of South Australia
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Paizis C, Skoura X, Personnier P, Papaxanthis C. Motor Asymmetry Attenuation in Older Adults during Imagined Arm Movements. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:49. [PMID: 24688468 PMCID: PMC3960501 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Laterality is an important feature of motor behavior. Several studies have shown that lateralization in right-handed young adults (i.e., right versus left arm superiority) emerges also during imagined actions, that is when an action is internally simulated without any motor output. Such information, however, is lacking for elderly people and it could be valuable to further comprehend the evolution of mental states of action in normal aging. Here, we evaluated the influence of age on motor laterality during mental actions. Twenty-four young (mean age: 24.7 ± 4.4 years) and 24 elderly (mean age: 72.4 ± 3.6 years) participants mentally simulated and actually executed pointing movements with either their dominant-right or non-dominant-left arm in the horizontal plane. We recorded and analyzed the time of actual and mental movements and looked for differences between groups and arms. In addition, electromyographic activity from arm muscle was recorded to quantify any enhancement in muscle activation during mental actions. Our findings indicated that both groups mentally simulated arm movements without activating the muscles of the right or the left arm above the baseline level. This finding suggests that young and, notably, elderly adults are able to generate covert actions without any motor output. We found that manual asymmetries (i.e., faster movements with the right arm) were preserved in young adults for both actual and mental movements. In elderly adults, manual asymmetries were observed for actual but not for mental movements (i.e., equal movement times for both arms). These findings clearly indicate an age-related reduction of motor laterality during mental actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Paizis
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Université de Bourgogne , Dijon , France ; Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité Sensorimotrice, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale , Dijon , France ; Sport Science Faculty, Center for Performance Expertise G. Cometti, University of Burgundy , Dijon , France
| | - Xanthi Skoura
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Université de Bourgogne , Dijon , France ; Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité Sensorimotrice, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale , Dijon , France
| | - Pascaline Personnier
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Université de Bourgogne , Dijon , France ; Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité Sensorimotrice, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale , Dijon , France
| | - Charalambos Papaxanthis
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Université de Bourgogne , Dijon , France ; Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité Sensorimotrice, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale , Dijon , France
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Addamo PK, Farrow M, Bradshaw JL, Moss S, Georgiou-Karistianis N. Characterizing the developmental profile of effort-induced motor overflow across a timed trial. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2013; 126:227-34. [PMID: 23858955 DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.126.2.0227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Motor overflow is overt involuntary movement that accompanies voluntary movement. This study investigated the change in overflow production across a timed trial and the factors that affected this profile. Seventeen children (aged 8-11 years), 17 young adults (aged 18-35 years), and 17 older adults (aged 60-80 years) performed a 5-s finger pressing task by exerting 33% or 66% of their maximal force output using either index finger. Overflow was recorded as force from the alternative index finger. Young adult overflow remained stable over the 5 s. The rate of overflow increase over time was significantly greater for children than young adults. There was also a tendency for a greater overflow increase in older adults than in young adults. This overflow gradient was also greater in the right hand, particularly for children. These findings indicate that the neurological processes underlying overflow production are age dependent. Overflow progressed in a dynamic fashion over the course of a trial in children and older adults, probably because of increased bilateral cortical activation and the facilitation of motor task performance. This study is unique in quantitatively capturing the dynamic profile of overflow production in healthy participants across the life span.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia K Addamo
- Institute of Sports, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University, Victoria, Australia.
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De Simone L, Tomasino B, Marusic N, Eleopra R, Rumiati RI. The effects of healthy aging on mental imagery as revealed by egocentric and allocentric mental spatial transformations. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2013; 143:146-56. [PMID: 23562849 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 02/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that mental rotation can be accomplished by using different mental spatial transformations. When adopting the allocentric transformation, individuals imagine the stimulus rotation referring to its intrinsic coordinate frame, while when adopting the egocentric transformation they rely on multisensory and sensory-motor mechanisms. However, how these mental transformations evolve during healthy aging has received little attention. Here we investigated how visual, multisensory, and sensory-motor components of mental imagery change with normal aging. Fifteen elderly and 15 young participants were asked to perform two different laterality tasks within either an allocentric or an egocentric frame of reference. Participants had to judge either the handedness of a visual hand (egocentric task) or the location of a marker placed on the left or right side of the same visual hand (allocentric task). Both left and right hands were presented at various angular departures to the left, the right, or to the center of the screen. When performing the egocentric task, elderly participants were less accurate and slower for biomechanically awkward hand postures (i.e., lateral hand orientations). Their performance also decreased when stimuli were presented laterally. The findings revealed that healthy aging is associated with a specific degradation of sensory-motor mechanisms necessary to accomplish complex effector-centered mental transformations. Moreover, failure to find a difference in judging left or right hand laterality suggests that aging does not necessarily impair non-dominant hand sensory-motor programs.
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8
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Abstract
Developmental observations in foot laterality suggest increasing right-footedness from early childhood to young adult years, with few reports on behaviour beyond this time frame. This investigation confirmed recent suggestions by Porac (1996) of a continuation of this trend into middle and older adulthood, along with significant decreases in mixed-and left-foot preferences. Trends towards increasing right-footedness are linked to hemispheric heterochrony (right hemisphere ageing) and the right-sided world phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bell
- Department of Exercise Science and Health, Abilene Christian University, Texas 79699-8084, USA.
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9
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De Agostini M, Curt F, Tzortzis C, Dellatolas G. Comparing left and right hand in line bisection at different ages. Dev Neuropsychol 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/87565649909540756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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10
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Saimpont A, Pozzo T, Papaxanthis C. Aging affects the mental rotation of left and right hands. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6714. [PMID: 19707585 PMCID: PMC2726952 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2009] [Accepted: 07/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Normal aging significantly influences motor and cognitive performance. Little is known about age-related changes in action simulation. Here, we investigated the influence of aging on implicit motor imagery. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Twenty young (mean age: 23.9+/-2.8 years) and nineteen elderly (mean age: 78.3+/-4.5 years) subjects, all right-handed, were required to determine the laterality of hands presented in various positions. To do so, they mentally rotated their hands to match them with the hand-stimuli. We showed that: (1) elderly subjects were affected in their ability to implicitly simulate movements of the upper limbs, especially those requiring the largest amplitude of displacement and/or with strong biomechanical constraints; (2) this decline was greater for movements of the non-dominant arm than of the dominant arm. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These results extend recent findings showing age-related alterations of the explicit side of motor imagery. They suggest that a general decline in action simulation occurs with normal aging, in particular for the non-dominant side of the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Saimpont
- INSERM U887 Motricité-Plasticité, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France.
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Poston B, Van Gemmert AWA, Barduson B, Stelmach GE. Movement structure in young and elderly adults during goal-directed movements of the left and right arm. Brain Cogn 2008; 69:30-8. [PMID: 18556103 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2008] [Revised: 04/29/2008] [Accepted: 05/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Elderly adults often exhibit performance deficits during goal-directed movements of the dominant arm compared with young adults. Recent studies involving hemispheric lateralization have provided evidence that the dominant and non-dominant hemisphere-arm systems are specialized for controlling different movement parameters and that hemispheric specialization may be reduced during normal aging. The purpose was to examine age-related differences in the movement structure for the dominant (right) and non-dominant (left) during goal-directed movements. Young and elderly adults performed 72 aiming movements as fast and as accurately as possible to visual targets with both arms. The findings suggest that previous research utilizing the dominant arm can be generalized to the non-dominant arm because performance was similar for the two arms. However, as expected, the elderly adults showed shorter relative primary submovement lengths and longer relative primary submovement durations, reaction times, movement durations, and normalized jerk scores compared to the young adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brach Poston
- Motor Control Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 870404, Tempe, AZ 85287-0404, USA
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Poston B, Enoka JA, Enoka RM. Practice and endpoint accuracy with the left and right hands of old adults: The right-hemisphere aging model. Muscle Nerve 2008; 37:376-86. [DOI: 10.1002/mus.20954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Borod JC, Yecker SA, Brickman AM, Moreno CR, Sliwinski M, Foldi NS, Alpert M, Welkowitz J. Changes in posed facial expression of emotion across the adult life span. Exp Aging Res 2005; 30:305-31. [PMID: 15371098 DOI: 10.1080/03610730490484399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine changes in the facial expression of emotion across the adult life span. Two positive and two negative emotional expressions were posed by 30 young (21 to 39 years), 30 middle-aged (40 to 59 years), and 30 older (60 to 81 years) healthy, right-handed women. Photographs of the four emotional expressions were rated by independent judges for intensity, accuracy, and confidence. Special features of this study were the use of a neutral face as a nonemotional control, as well as careful cognitive and affective screening procedures for posers and judges. Overall, the expressions of older posers were rated as significantly less accurate and with significantly less confidence than those of younger posers. Although the neutral faces of older posers were rated as significantly more intense than those of younger posers, there were no significant age-related intensity differences for positive and negative emotions. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical models of aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan C Borod
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, and The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, Flushing, New York 11367, USA.
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Grunwald IS, Borod JC, Obler LK, Erhan HM, Pick LH, Welkowitz J, Madigan NK, Sliwinski M, Whalen J. The effects of age and gender on the perception of lexical emotion. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY 2000; 6:226-38. [PMID: 10635437 DOI: 10.1207/s15324826an0604_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the perception of lexical/verbal emotion across the adult life span. Secondary goals were to examine the contribution of gender and valence (i.e., pleasantness/unpleasantness) to the processing of lexical emotional stimuli. Participants were 28 young (ages 20-39), 28 middle-aged (ages 40-59), and 28 older (ages 60-85) right-handed adults; there were 14 men and 14 women in each age group. Age groups were comparable on demographic and cognitive variables. Participants made accuracy judgments and intensity ratings of emotional (both positive and negative) and nonemotional stimuli from lexical perception tasks from the New York Emotion Battery (Borod, Welkowitz, & Obler, 1992). Accuracy and intensity measures were not significantly correlated. When age was examined, older participants perceived emotional and nonemotional lexical stimuli with significantly less accuracy than did younger and middle-aged participants. On the other hand, older participants evaluated the nonemotional lexical stimuli as significantly more intense than younger participants. When gender was examined, lexical stimuli were processed more accurately by female than male participants. Further, emotional stimuli were rated more intense by female participants. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- I S Grunwald
- Department of Psychology, Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine, New York University Medical Center, New York, USA
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