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Olatunji BO, Forsyth JP, Cherian A. Evaluative differential conditioning of disgust: a sticky form of relational learning that is resistant to extinction. J Anxiety Disord 2007; 21:820-34. [PMID: 17158024 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Revised: 11/03/2006] [Accepted: 11/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The present study sought to (a) test whether autonomic (i.e., electrodermal) and evaluative conditioning can be differentially established to verbal CSs, and (b) whether extinction procedures can reliably attenuate differential conditioned evaluative responding. Thirty undergraduates underwent a 10-min adaptation period followed by three consecutive conditioning phases: habituation, acquisition, and extinction. Conditioning involved participants viewing two semi-randomly presented words on a computer monitor. During acquisition, one word (CS+) was reliably paired 12 times with the UCS (pictorial stimuli depicting bodily mutilation), whereas the remaining word (CS-) was presented 12 times and reliably followed by neutral pictures (inanimate common objects). As predicted, electrodermal and evaluative responses during acquisition were of larger magnitude to the CS+ compared to the CS-. During extinction, participants continued to evaluate the CS+ as more disgusting relative to the CS-, whereas distress and fear-related emotional ratings attenuated across extinction trials. The implications of these findings for the modifiability of disgust-based evaluative responses in specific anxiety disorders will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bunmi O Olatunji
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, 301 Wilson Hall, 111 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN 37203, USA.
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Walther E. Guilty by mere association: evaluative conditioning and the spreading attitude effect. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002; 82:919-34. [PMID: 12051580 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Five experiments investigated the phenomenon that attitude formation is not confined to the co-occurrence of an attitudinal object with an evaluated experience. The pairing of a target with a (dis)liked person not only affects the evaluation of the previously neutral person but spreads to other individuals who are (pre)associated with the target (spreading attitude effect). Experiments 1 and 2 provided evidence for the spreading attitude effect in appetitive as well as aversive evaluative conditioning. Experiment 3 showed that the spreading attitude effect is a robust phenomenon resistant to extinction. Experiment 4 demonstrated that attitude spread can be transferred to 2nd-order conditioning. Finally, Experiment 5 supports the notion that the spreading attitude effect is not dependent on cognitive resources. Implications for social as well as applied psychology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Walther
- Department of Pyschology, University of Heidelberg, Germany.
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Todrank J, Byrnes D, Wrzesniewski A, Rozin P. Odors can change preferences for people in photographs: A cross-modal evaluative conditioning study with olfactory USs and visual CSs. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0023-9690(95)90001-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Abstract
This paper contains a critical review of the claim that evaluative conditioning (EC) represents a theoretically distinct form of classical conditioning. A review of the evidence suggests that: (i) while it is claimed that EC can occur without awareness, EC studies have either adopted inappropriate statistical comparisons to demonstrate this or have failed to use the control conditions necessary to indicate that what is being measured is associative conditioning; (ii) there is no theoretical reason why conditioning without awareness might be observed in any conditioning paradigm if a relatively complex covariation assessment procedure such as that adopted in EC studies is used; and (iii) there are a variety of possible explanations for the relative resistance to extinction reported with EC, some of which allude to failure to use appropriate control conditions and others which point to specific details unique to the EC extinction procedure. Until these appropriate procedural and statistical comparisons are made, it is concluded that it is premature to assume that EC represents a form of conditioning that is theoretically distinct from other types of classical conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Davey
- Department of Social Science, City University, London, England
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Abstract
We do not believe the claim that "evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning" [Davey (1994). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 291-299]. We view all classical conditioning as a learning process which leads organisms to assign a positive or negative value to previously neutral stimuli and to respond to them accordingly. The evaluative response is a necessary component of this process and hence it is central to all classical conditioning, not a separate type. Davey concentrates on a signal-based information processing view of learning, i.e. the formation of linear associations between CS and UCS of which human subjects are aware and which they can verbalize. We propose a more primitive and more general model in which stimulus evaluation (like/dislike) occurs with a minimal degree of processing, and enters into a representation of stimulus (CS and UCS) and response (CR and UCR) characteristics which is reintegrative rather than associative.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Martin
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Denmark Hill, London, England
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Jiménez L, Lorda MJ, Méndez C. Condicionamiento con estímulos enmascarados: Desarrollo de Efectos de Primingcomo Evidencia de Aprendizaje Asociativo no Consciente. STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY 1993. [DOI: 10.1080/02109395.1993.10821187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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Balmaseda PS. Conciencia de la contingencia EC-EI y condicionamiento: efecto del conocimiento de la regla que permite predecir el estímulo incondicionado en el condicionamiento electrodermal humano. STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY 1993. [DOI: 10.1080/02109395.1993.10821188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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Kop WJ, Merckelbach H, Muris P. Unilateral contraction of facial muscles and emotion: a failed replication. Cortex 1991; 27:101-4. [PMID: 2055035 DOI: 10.1016/s0010-9452(13)80272-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W J Kop
- Department of Medical Psychology, University of Limburg, Maastricht
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Baeyens F, Eelen P, Bergh OVD. Contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning: A case for unaware affective-evaluative learning. Cogn Emot 1990. [DOI: 10.1080/02699939008406760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Baeyens F, Eelen P, Van Den Bergh O, Crombez G. Acquired affective-evaluative value: conservative but not unchangeable. Behav Res Ther 1989; 27:279-87. [PMID: 2730509 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(89)90047-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In a previous study on Evaluative Conditioning it was found that unlike signal-learning, evaluative learning is resistant to extinction. In the present experiment we tried to replicate and corroborate this finding. In addition, we investigated the effectiveness of a counterconditioning procedure to alter acquired evaluative value. On a within-subject base (n = 30), it was found that the mere contingent presentation of neutral with (dis)liked pictures of human faces was sufficient to change the affective-evaluative tone of the originally neutral stimuli in (negative) positive direction. Next, we replicated the finding that an extinction procedure does not have any influence on the acquired evaluative value of the originally neutral stimuli, and this even in subjects fully aware of the extinction presentations. We demonstrated the effectiveness of a counterconditioning procedure to alter acquired evaluative value, and in addition, found some evidence that awareness of the counterconditioning manipulations is not a prerequisite for its effectiveness. The theoretical consequences of these findings are phrased in terms of a fundamental distinction between signal-learning and evaluative learning, and some important implications for the behavioral treatment of affective-emotional disorders are suggested.
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Abstract
This paper reviews data demonstrating nonconscious control of autonomic responses and emotional processes. After briefly having considered theoretical attempts to encompass such processes within Pavlovian conditioning frameworks, it goes on the examine theories and evidence for nonconscious control of emotional processes. The phenomena covered include affective discrimination, neurophysiological mechanisms in the control of conditioned emotional responses, and attentional biases in anxiety disorders. The main section of the paper examines evidence for nonconscious, automatic control of autonomic responses. Such control is demonstrated by data on skin conductance responses to nonattended stimuli, by skin conductance responses in prosopagnosic patients, and by skin conductance responses to masked conditioned stimuli. There are also some data suggesting that responses can be learned to nonconsciously presented in stimuli. In the discussion, it is argued that controlled processing may be dissociated from awareness. That is to say, stimuli may be processed at a controlled level without being accessible for conscious awareness. The relevance of these findings for Pavlovian conditioning is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ohman
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Uppsala, Sweden
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Eifert GH, Craill L, Carey E, O'Connor C. Affect modification through evaluative conditioning with music. Behav Res Ther 1988; 26:321-30. [PMID: 3214396 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(88)90084-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Abstract
Recent developments in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral theory emphasize the relationships between behavior, cognition, and effect, and their importance in understanding and modifying human behavior. This paper reviews some current arguments concerning these relationships, and outlines some possible implications for the future development of behavioral theory and practice. Some recent trends towards models which invoke complex and unobservable mechanisms to explain affect may provide a temporarily convenient framework for talking about highly complex phenomena. But it should be remembered that these models are not empirically verifiable. A focus on variables which can be defined and measured objectively is essential for the scientific development of behavioral theories that have real explanatory value, and for behavior modification practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of Newcastle, Australia
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Relationships between overt behavior to a fear stimulus and self-verbalizations measured by different assessment strategies. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01183263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Hodes RL, Cook EW, Lang PJ. Individual differences in autonomic response: conditioned association or conditioned fear? Psychophysiology 1985; 22:545-60. [PMID: 4048355 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1985.tb01649.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Frcka G, Beyts J, Levey AB, Martin I. The role of awareness in human conditioning. THE PAVLOVIAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 1983; 18:69-76. [PMID: 6877880 DOI: 10.1007/bf03001857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The cognitive view of human classical conditioning is that Ss are active in thinking about the pattern of stimulus events which occurs, the demands of the situation, and the kind of responses which they give. A question crucially central to conditioning theory is whether these thoughts and expectations determine conditional responding. This paper reports on two conditioning and personality experiments, employing the standard procedure of a single cue CS-UCS schedule and masking task, which assess awareness of stimulus contingencies and demand characteristics by means of a postexperimental questionnaire. Results were quite clear in showing no significant relationship between measures of awareness and eyelid conditioning.
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Borkovec TD, Wilkinson L, Folensbee R, Lerman C. Stimulus control applications to the treatment of worry. Behav Res Ther 1983; 21:247-51. [PMID: 6615390 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(83)90206-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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