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Thunnissen MR, de Jong PJ, Rijkeboer MM, Voncken MJ, Rapee RM, Nauta MH. Targeting negative flashforward imagery in speech anxiety with a visuospatial dual-task: Do attenuated flashforwards lead to less anxiety and avoidance? J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2024; 83:101940. [PMID: 38160573 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES It has been proposed that negative mental imagery plays an important role in the persistence of social fears. Experiencing vivid and distressing 'flashforward' images of a potential social catastrophe appears to be of relevance in speech anxiety. To clarify the role of these images, the current experimental study tested if reducing the vividness and distressing properties of recurring negative flashforward images subsequently reduces anxiety and avoidance tendencies regarding a speech. METHODS Participants were female undergraduates high in speech anxiety (N = 134) who joined our study online. In the experimental condition, we used a visuospatial dual-task to reduce the vividness and distress of flashforward imagery. Primary outcomes were participants' self-reported anxiety and avoidance ratings in anticipation of and during an actual speech. As a secondary outcome, we used observer ratings of participants' anxiety during the speech. RESULTS Participants reported moderate to high frequency and interference of their vivid and distressing flashforward images in daily life. The dual-task resulted in reductions in image vividness and distress. However, we found no differences between conditions in anxiety and avoidance ratings before and during the speech. LIMITATIONS The imagery manipulation effect was moderate to small. Moreover, we included a subclinical sample. CONCLUSIONS Reducing negative flashforward imagery vividness and distress with a visuospatial dual-task did not directly lead to less anxiety and avoidance tendencies related to a later speech. Thus, findings provided no support for the hypothesis that experiencing highly vivid and distressing flashforward images causally contributes to social fears.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein R Thunnissen
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS Groningen, the Netherlands; Child Study Center, Accare, PO Box 660, 9700 AR Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Peter J de Jong
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marleen M Rijkeboer
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Marisol J Voncken
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Ronald M Rapee
- Centre for Emotional Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, 16 University Ave, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Maaike H Nauta
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS Groningen, the Netherlands; Child Study Center, Accare, PO Box 660, 9700 AR Groningen, the Netherlands
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2
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Wong AHK, Franzen M, Wieser MJ. Unconditioned stimulus devaluation decreases the generalization of costly safety behaviors. J Anxiety Disord 2024; 103:102847. [PMID: 38422593 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2024.102847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Safety behaviors are often maladaptive in clinical anxiety as they typically persist without realistic threat and cause various impairments. In the laboratory, safety behaviors are modelled by responses to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that reduce the occurrence of an expected aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). Preliminary evidence suggests that US devaluation, a procedure that decreases US aversiveness, devalues the threat value of the CS and thus diminishes safety behaviors to the CS. This study (n = 78) aimed to extend this finding and examined whether US-devaluation can reduce the generalization of safety behaviors to various stimuli. After acquiring safety behaviors to CSs of different categories, the US predicted by one CS category was devalued. In test, participants showed a selective reduction in safety behaviors to novel stimuli of the devalued CS category, reflecting a decrease in generalization of safety behaviors. Trait anxiety was associated with persistent generalized safety behaviors to novel stimuli of the devalued category. We discuss how US devaluation may improve treatment outcome but also the challenges of clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex H K Wong
- Department of Psychology, Educational Sciences, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Minita Franzen
- Department of Psychology, Educational Sciences, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Matthias J Wieser
- Department of Psychology, Educational Sciences, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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Melles H, Duijvis S, Jansen A. Inhibitory Learning during Exposure Treatment in Anorexia Nervosa: A Practical Guide. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:bs13050370. [PMID: 37232607 DOI: 10.3390/bs13050370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure therapy is known to be an effective intervention in the treatment of anxiety-related disorders. In eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa, anxiety and avoidance are identified as maintenance factors. Therefore, they may constitute an important treatment target, suitable for the use of exposure therapy. Remarkably, exposure techniques to target fears and avoidance behaviors are not commonly used in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. We present a practical guide for the implementation of exposure therapy in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. We outline how exposure therapy is supposed to work according to the inhibitory learning model and how the exposure intervention can be designed for individuals with anorexia nervosa. Practical examples are provided through the case presentation of a patient with anorexia nervosa who completed 31 exposure sessions that focused on her fears of food, eating, weight, weight gain, their feared social consequences and the associated safety behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Melles
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Duijvis
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Anita Jansen
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Kasran S, Hughes S, De Houwer J. Learning via instructions about observations: exploring similarities and differences with learning via actual observations. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220059. [PMID: 35360350 PMCID: PMC8965423 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Our behaviour toward stimuli can be influenced by observing how another person (a model) interacts with those stimuli. We investigated whether mere instructions about a model's interactions with stimuli (i.e. instructions about observations) are sufficient to alter evaluative and fear responses and whether these changes are similar in magnitude to those resulting from actually observing the interactions. In Experiments 1 (n = 268) and 2 (n = 260), participants either observed or read about a model reacting positively or negatively to stimuli. Evaluations of those stimuli were then assessed via ratings and a personalized implicit association test. In Experiments 3 (n = 60) and 4 (n = 190), we assessed participants' fear toward stimuli after observing or reading about a model displaying distress in the presence of those stimuli. While the results consistently indicated that instructions about observations induced behavioural changes, they were mixed with regard to whether instructions were as powerful in changing behaviour as observations. We discuss whether learning via observations and via instructions may be mediated by similar or different processes, how they might differ in their suitability for conveying certain types of information, and how their relative effectiveness may depend on the information to be transmitted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Kasran
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Sean Hughes
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Jan De Houwer
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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5
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Labrenz F, Woud ML, Elsenbruch S, Icenhour A. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly-Chances, Challenges, and Clinical Implications of Avoidance Research in Psychosomatic Medicine. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:841734. [PMID: 35250678 PMCID: PMC8894646 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.841734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Avoidance behaviors are shaped by associative learning processes in response to fear of impending threats, particularly physical harm. As part of a defensive repertoire, avoidance is highly adaptive in case of acute danger, serving a potent protective function. However, persistent or excessive fear and maladaptive avoidance are considered key factors in the etiology and pathophysiology of anxiety- and stress-related psychosomatic disorders. In these overlapping conditions, avoidance can increase the risk of mental comorbidities and interfere with the efficacy of cognitive behavioral treatment approaches built on fear extinction. Despite resurging interest in avoidance research also in the context of psychosomatic medicine, especially in conditions associated with pain, disturbed interoception, and disorders of the gut-brain axis, current study designs and their translation into the clinical context face significant challenges limiting both, the investigation of mechanisms involved in avoidance and the development of novel targeted treatment options. We herein selectively review the conceptual framework of learning and memory processes, emphasizing how classical and operant conditioning, fear extinction, and return of fear shape avoidance behaviors. We further discuss pathological avoidance and safety behaviors as hallmark features in psychosomatic diseases, with a focus on anxiety- and stress-related disorders. Aiming to emphasize chances of improved translational knowledge across clinical conditions, we further point out limitations in current experimental avoidance research. Based on these considerations, we propose means to improve existing avoidance paradigms to broaden our understanding of underlying mechanisms, moderators and mediators of avoidance, and to inspire tailored treatments for patients suffering from psychosomatic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Labrenz
- Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marcella L Woud
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Department of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sigrid Elsenbruch
- Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.,Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Adriane Icenhour
- Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Krause L, Askew C. Preventing and reducing fear using positive modelling: A systematic review of experimental research with children. Behav Res Ther 2021; 148:103992. [PMID: 34837839 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2021.103992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fear of specific stimuli is thought to develop through associative learning mechanisms and research indicates that a form of observational (vicarious) learning known as positive modelling can counter these effects. This systematic review examined and synthesised the experimental positive modelling literature to establish its efficacy for reducing fear. Psych Info, Medline and the Psychology and Behavioural Science Collection databases were systematically searched until August 2021. Of the 1,677 papers identified, 18 experiments across 14 articles met the inclusion criteria. In the majority of these, positive modelling was found to lower fear levels in one or more of three procedures: fear prevention, fear reduction and fear reversal. Procedures inform prevention and treatment initiatives for specific phobias in several ways. The overall efficacy of positive modelling techniques and the ease in which they can be implemented highlight the importance of further research to evaluate their inclusion in prevention and treatment interventions. More research is required to establish the longevity and transferability of positive modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Litza Krause
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Askew
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, United Kingdom.
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7
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Landová E, Janovcová M, Štolhoferová I, Rádlová S, Frýdlová P, Sedláčková K, Frynta D. Specificity of spiders among fear- and disgust-eliciting arthropods: Spiders are special, but phobics not so much. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257726. [PMID: 34555103 PMCID: PMC8460016 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate a specificity of spiders as a prototypical fear- and disgust-eliciting stimuli, we conducted an online experiment. The respondents rated images of 25 spiders, 12 non-spider chelicerates, and 10 other arthropods on a fear and disgust 7-point scale. The evaluation of 968 Central European respondents confirmed the specificity of spiders among fear- and disgust-eliciting arthropods and supported the notion of spiders as a cognitive category. We delineated this category as covering extant spider species as well as some other chelicerates bearing a physical resemblance to spiders, mainly whip spiders and camel spiders. We suggested calling this category the spider-like cognitive category. We discussed evolutionary roots of the spider-like category and concluded that its roots should be sought in fear, with disgust being secondary of the two emotions. We suggested other chelicerates, e.g., scorpions, might have been important in formation and fixation of the spider-like category. Further, we investigated an effect of respondent's sensitivity to a specific fear of spiders on evaluation of the stimuli. We found that suspected phobic respondents were in their rating nearly identical to those with only high fear of spiders and similar to those with only moderate fear of spiders. We concluded that results based on healthy respondents with elevated fear should also be considered relevant for arachnophobia research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Landová
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, the Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, the Czech Republic
- * E-mail:
| | - Markéta Janovcová
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, the Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, the Czech Republic
| | - Iveta Štolhoferová
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, the Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, the Czech Republic
| | - Silvie Rádlová
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, the Czech Republic
| | - Petra Frýdlová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, the Czech Republic
| | | | - Daniel Frynta
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, the Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, the Czech Republic
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8
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Mertens G, van Dis EAM, Krypotos AM, Engelhard IM. Does an unconditioned stimulus memory devaluation procedure decrease disgust memories and conditioned disgust? Results of two laboratory studies. J Anxiety Disord 2021; 82:102447. [PMID: 34271332 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Research has demonstrated that disgust can be installed through classical conditioning by pairing neutral conditioned stimuli (CSs) with disgusting unconditioned stimuli (USs). Disgust has been argued to play an important role in maintaining fear-related disorders. This maintaining role may be explained by conditioned disgust being less sensitive to extinction (i.e., experiencing the CS in the absence of the US). Promising alternatives to extinction training are procedures that focus on the devaluation of US memory representations. In the current study, we investigated whether such devaluation procedures can be successful to counter conditioned disgust. We conducted two laboratory studies (N = 120 and N = 51) in which disgust was conditioned using audio-visual USs. Memory representations of the USs were devalued by having participants recall these USs while they performed a taxing eye-movement task or executed one of several control tasks. The results showed successful conditioned disgust acquisition. However, no strong evidence was obtained that an US memory devaluation procedure modulates disgust memory and diminishes conditioned disgust as indicated by subjective, behavioral, or psychophysiological measures. We discuss the relevance of our results for methodological improvements regarding US memory devaluation procedures and disgust conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëtan Mertens
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | | | - Angelos-Miltiadis Krypotos
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Research Group on Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Iris M Engelhard
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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9
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Lange I, Papalini S, Vervliet B. Experimental models in psychopathology research: The relation between Research Domain Criteria and Experimental Psychopathology. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 41:118-123. [PMID: 34418641 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Experimental Psychopathology (EPP) and the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) are research approaches that have developed in parallel, providing inter-related yet different scientific frameworks to investigate psychopathology at the intersection of fundamental and applied research. Here we address the overlap and differences between RDoC and EPP, and the challenges that both approaches face. Although overlap between EPP and RDoC can be clearly observed, each approach has its own unique strengths and weaknesses. These aspects will be illustrated by examples with respect to fear conditioning, an experimental procedure that has played a central role in both EPP and RDoC. We see much potential in boosting psychopathology research by combining the strengths of these two approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Lange
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, Department of Brain and Cognition, KU Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Silvia Papalini
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, Department of Brain and Cognition, KU Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bram Vervliet
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, Department of Brain and Cognition, KU Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Belgium
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10
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Measuring fear: Association among different measures of fear learning. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2021; 70:101618. [PMID: 33039814 PMCID: PMC7689577 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Fear conditioning paradigms use various measures to assess learned fear, including autonomic arousal responses like skin conductance, and self-reports of both associative (US-expectancies) and evaluative (affective ratings) learning. The present study uses a dimensional approach to examine associations among fear indices directly. METHODS Seventy-three participants completed a differential fear conditioning experiment, during which a neutral stimulus (CS+) was paired with an electric shock (US), while another stimulus (CS-) was never paired with the shock (partially instructed fear acquisition). Ten minutes later, both stimuli were presented without any shocks (fear extinction). Skin conductance responses and US-expectancy ratings were recorded during each phase, while self-reported negative affect was assessed for each CS at the end of extinction. RESULTS Results showed a positive association among US-expectancy ratings and skin conductance responses during acquisition and early extinction. US-expectancy ratings during overall extinction were positively associated with post-extinction negative affect. LIMITATIONS The lack of affective ratings post-acquisition may have obscured associations between associative and evaluative learning indices. CONCLUSIONS Results provide evidence for the expected correspondence among different indices of associative fear learning. Findings emphasize the need for incorporating both associative and evaluative learning measures in fear conditioning paradigms.
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11
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Willems AL, Vervliet B. When nothing matters: Assessing markers of expectancy violation during omissions of threat. Behav Res Ther 2021; 136:103764. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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12
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Liu C, Chen L, Yu R. Category-based generalization of placebo and nocebo effects. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2019; 199:102894. [PMID: 31349030 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Human beings possess the adaptive ability to apply experiential knowledge to new situations. Although this generalization capability has been demonstrated in fear and reward learning, it remains unclear whether it extends to analgesic and hyperalgesic pain responses. Here, we conducted two experiments (total n = 104) to test the generalization effects of placebo analgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia. The first experiment, using a category-based conditioning paradigm in which two categories of images were used as acquisition stimuli, assessed whether pain perception can be generalized to never-seen pictures of the same category in the generalization phase. The second experiment adopted a single stimulus for each category as CS to further examine the generalization effects after learning a single exemplar. Pain ratings showed that participants reported higher pain or lower pain when the pain was preceded by novel stimuli that were conceptually similar to the previously conditioned stimuli, suggesting a generalization of analgesic and hyperalgesic pain modulation effects. These results provide novel evidence that analgesic and hyperalgesic effects on pain perception can be generalized to conceptually similar new items.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuizhen Liu
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Linqiu Chen
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rongjun Yu
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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13
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Hanley AW, Garland EL. Mindfulness training disrupts Pavlovian conditioning. Physiol Behav 2019; 204:151-154. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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14
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Does US expectancy mediate the additive effects of CS-US pairings on contingency instructions? Results from subjective, psychophysiological and neural measures. Behav Res Ther 2018; 110:41-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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15
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Mertens G, Boddez Y, Sevenster D, Engelhard IM, De Houwer J. A review on the effects of verbal instructions in human fear conditioning: Empirical findings, theoretical considerations, and future directions. Biol Psychol 2018; 137:49-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Thompson A, McEvoy PM, Lipp OV. Enhancing extinction learning: Occasional presentations of the unconditioned stimulus during extinction eliminate spontaneous recovery, but not necessarily reacquisition of fear. Behav Res Ther 2018; 108:29-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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17
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Cooper SE, Grillon C, Lissek S. Impaired discriminative fear conditioning during later training trials differentiates generalized anxiety disorder, but not panic disorder, from healthy control participants. Compr Psychiatry 2018; 85:84-93. [PMID: 30005181 PMCID: PMC6100804 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fear conditioning is implicated as a central psychopathological mechanism of anxiety disorders. People with anxiety disorders typically demonstrate reduced affective discrimination between conditioned danger and safety cues. Here, affective discrimination refers to the ability to selectively display fear to dangerous but not safe situations. Though both generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder (PD) are linked to impaired affective discrimination, the clinical phenomenology of these disorders suggests that people with GAD versus PD might be less able to overcome such deficits. It is unclear how this potential difference would manifest during lab-based conditioning. METHODS We used a classical fear conditioning paradigm over two discrimination training sessions to examine whether those with GAD, but not PD, would display persistent discrimination deficits. Sixty-seven participants (21 GAD, 19 PD, 27 Healthy Controls) completed a task in which conditioned fear was measured psychophysiologically (fear-potentiated startle), behaviorally, and via self-report. RESULTS Although similar levels of impaired discrimination were found for both GAD and PD groups during initial training, such impairments tended to persist across a subsequent training session only for patients with GAD when compared with Controls. CONCLUSION Our results provide a foundation for additional research of discrimination deficits in specific anxiety disorders, with an ultimate goal of improved customization of psychological treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel E Cooper
- Clinical Science and Psychopathology Research Program, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin City Campus, United States of America
| | - Christian Grillon
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, DIRP, NIMH, United States of America
| | - Shmuel Lissek
- Clinical Science and Psychopathology Research Program, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin City Campus, United States of America.
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Krisch KA, Bandarian-Balooch S, Neumann DL. Effects of extended extinction and multiple extinction contexts on ABA renewal. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lmot.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Redondo J, Fernandez-Rey J, Gonzalez-Gonzalez D. Is it possible to modify fear memories in humans with extinction training within a single day? PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 83:1340-1348. [PMID: 29671052 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-1017-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Extinction procedures have been used widely in the study of fear memories, and different positions have been adopted regarding the efficacy of such procedures and the mechanisms involved. It has been argued that extinction may interfere with the consolidation of the fear memory if the procedure is applied with the appropriate timing after acquisition. However, the opposite position is also held, that is, that the extinction does not achieve an elimination of the fear response. The aim of the present study is to test the short-term effects of immediate extinction in fear reduction when this extinction is preceded by a retrieval trial. For this, a procedure similar to that employed by Schiller et al. (Nature 463(7277): 49-53, 2010) was used, but in a single day and with white noise as an aversive unconditioned stimulus. The results indicate that a CS+ single retrieval trial before the extinction procedure after acquisition was more effective in fear reduction than standard immediate extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Redondo
- Cognitive Processes and Behavior Lab, Faculty of Psychology, University of Santiago de Compostela,, Santiago, Spain.
| | - Jose Fernandez-Rey
- Cognitive Processes and Behavior Lab, Faculty of Psychology, University of Santiago de Compostela,, Santiago, Spain
| | - Daniel Gonzalez-Gonzalez
- Cognitive Processes and Behavior Lab, Faculty of Psychology, University of Santiago de Compostela,, Santiago, Spain
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Amd M, de Oliveira MA, Passarelli DA, Balog LC, de Rose JC. Effects of orientation and differential reinforcement II: transitivity and transfer across five-member sets. Behav Processes 2018; 150:8-16. [PMID: 29454085 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 02/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A recent report by Amd et al. (2017) demonstrated that orienting towards successively presented stimulus-stimulus pairs yielded significantly more transitive relations then when those same pairs were differentially reinforced following training for three, 3-member stimulus sets. We build on that work in four important ways. First, transitivity yields produced by Pavlovian and instrumental procedures were compared following training for three 5-member sets (A1-B1-C1-D1-E1, A2-B2-C2-D2-E2, A3-B3-C3-D3-E3), where the 'A' stimuli were emotional faces and all remaining stimuli were nonsense words. Second, our instrumental task here required two orienting/observing responses per trial. Third, we compared differences in multi-nodal transfer following Pavlovian and instrumental relational learning procedures. Finally, we tested whether functioning as 'end terms' in a relational series can mitigate transfer following instrumental conditioning. Transitivity, as measured by sorting tests, was significantly more pronounced following Pavlovian training. Transfer, assessed before and after relational training with two visual analog scales corresponding to valence and arousal dimensions, appeared marginally more robust observed for participants exposed to the Pavlovian condition. Transfer magnitude was positively related with demonstrations of transitivity, regardless of type of conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micah Amd
- Federal University of Sao Carlos, Brazil; Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Canada.
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Rudaz M, Ledermann T, Margraf J, Becker ES, Craske MG. The moderating role of avoidance behavior on anxiety over time: Is there a difference between social anxiety disorder and specific phobia? PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180298. [PMID: 28671977 PMCID: PMC5495400 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Theories of anxiety disorders and phobias have ascribed a critical role to avoidance behavior in explaining the persistence of fear and anxiety, but knowledge about the role of avoidance behavior in the maintenance of anxiety in social anxiety disorder relative to specific phobia is lacking. This study examined the extent to which avoidance behavior moderates the relationship between general anxiety at baseline and 18 months later in women with a diagnosed social anxiety disorder (n = 91) and women with a diagnosed specific phobia (n = 130) at baseline. Circumscribed avoidance of social and specific situations were clinician-rated using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Lifetime (ADIS-IV-L), and general anxiety was measured using the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Moderated regression analyses revealed that (a) general anxiety at baseline predicted general anxiety at follow-up in both women with a specific phobia and women with a social anxiety disorder and (b) avoidance behavior moderated this relationship in women with a specific phobia but not in women with a social anxiety disorder. Specifically, high avoidance behavior was found to amplify the effect between general anxiety at baseline and follow-up in specific phobia. Reasons for the absence of a similar moderating effect of avoidance behavior within social anxiety disorder are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Rudaz
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Thomas Ledermann
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Jürgen Margraf
- Department of Psychology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Eni S. Becker
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Michelle G. Craske
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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Abstract
In this review, we summarize findings supporting the existence of multiple behavioral strategies for controlling reward-related behavior, including a dichotomy between the goal-directed or model-based system and the habitual or model-free system in the domain of instrumental conditioning and a similar dichotomy in the realm of Pavlovian conditioning. We evaluate evidence from neuroscience supporting the existence of at least partly distinct neuronal substrates contributing to the key computations necessary for the function of these different control systems. We consider the nature of the interactions between these systems and show how these interactions can lead to either adaptive or maladaptive behavioral outcomes. We then review evidence that an additional system guides inference concerning the hidden states of other agents, such as their beliefs, preferences, and intentions, in a social context. We also describe emerging evidence for an arbitration mechanism between model-based and model-free reinforcement learning, placing such a mechanism within the broader context of the hierarchical control of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P O'Doherty
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125;
| | - Jeffrey Cockburn
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125;
| | - Wolfgang M Pauli
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125;
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Desmedt L, Baracchi D, Devaud JM, Giurfa M, d'Ettorre P. Aversive learning of odor-heat associations in ants. J Exp Biol 2017; 220:4661-4668. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.161737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Ants have recently emerged as useful models for the study of olfactory learning. In this framework, the development of a protocol for the appetitive conditioning of the maxilla-labium extension response (MaLER) provided the possibility of studying Pavlovian odor-food learning in a controlled environment. Here we extend these studies by introducing the first Pavlovian aversive learning protocol for harnessed ants in the laboratory. We worked with carpenter ants Camponotus aethiops and first determined the capacity of different temperatures applied to the body surface to elicit the typical aversive mandible opening response (MOR). We determined that 75°C is the optimal temperature to induce MOR and chose the hind legs as the stimulated body region due to their high sensitivity. We then studied the ability of ants to learn and remember odor-heat associations using 75°C as unconditioned stimulus. We studied learning and short-term retention after absolute (one odor paired with heat) and differential conditioning (a punished odor versus an unpunished odor). Our results show that ants successfully learn the odor-heat association under a differential-conditioning regime and thus exhibit conditioned MOR to the punished odor. Yet, their performance under an absolute-conditioning regime is poor. These results demonstrate that ants are capable of aversive learning and confirm previous findings about the different attentional resources solicited by differential and absolute conditioning in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Desmedt
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, University of Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France
| | - David Baracchi
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, University of Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Jean-Marc Devaud
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Martin Giurfa
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Patrizia d'Ettorre
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, University of Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
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Haesen K, Beckers T, Baeyens F, Vervliet B. One-trial overshadowing: Evidence for fast specific fear learning in humans. Behav Res Ther 2016; 90:16-24. [PMID: 27960093 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive defensive actions necessitate a fear learning system that is both fast and specific. Fast learning serves to minimize the number of threat confrontations, while specific learning ensures that the acquired fears are tied to threat-relevant cues only. In Pavlovian fear conditioning, fear acquisition is typically studied via repetitive pairings of a single cue with an aversive experience, which is not optimal for the examination of fast specific fear learning. In this study, we adopted the one-trial overshadowing procedure from basic learning research, in which a combination of two visual cues is presented once and paired with an aversive electrical stimulation. Using on-line shock expectancy ratings, skin conductance reactivity and startle reflex modulation as indices of fear learning, we found evidence of strong fear after a single conditioning trial (fast learning) as well as attenuated fear responding when only half of the trained stimulus combination was presented (specific learning). Moreover, specificity of fear responding tended to correlate with levels of state and trait anxiety. These results suggest that one-trial overshadowing can be used as a model to study fast specific fear learning in humans and individual differences therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Haesen
- Center for Learning Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Center for Excellence on Generalization in Health and Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Tom Beckers
- Center for Learning Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Center for Excellence on Generalization in Health and Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Frank Baeyens
- Center for Learning Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Center for Excellence on Generalization in Health and Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Bram Vervliet
- Center for Learning Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Center for Excellence on Generalization in Health and Psychopathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, USA.
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Rapee RM, Jones MP, Hudson JL, Malhi GS, Lyneham HJ, Schneider SC. d-Cycloserine does not enhance the effects of in vivo exposure among young people with broad-based anxiety disorders. Behav Res Ther 2016; 87:225-231. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
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Evaluating Perceived Probability of Threat-Relevant Outcomes and Temporal Orientation in Flying Phobia. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161272. [PMID: 27557054 PMCID: PMC4996458 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Probability bias regarding threat-relevant outcomes has been demonstrated across anxiety disorders but has not been investigated in flying phobia. Individual temporal orientation (time perspective) may be hypothesised to influence estimates of negative outcomes occurring. The present study investigated whether probability bias could be demonstrated in flying phobia and whether probability estimates of negative flying events was predicted by time perspective. Sixty flying phobic and fifty-five non-flying-phobic adults were recruited to complete an online questionnaire. Participants completed the Flight Anxiety Scale, Probability Scale (measuring perceived probability of flying-negative events, general-negative and general positive events) and the Past-Negative, Future and Present-Hedonistic subscales of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (variables argued to predict mental travel forward and backward in time). The flying phobic group estimated the probability of flying negative and general negative events occurring as significantly higher than non-flying phobics. Past-Negative scores (positively) and Present-Hedonistic scores (negatively) predicted probability estimates of flying negative events. The Future Orientation subscale did not significantly predict probability estimates. This study is the first to demonstrate probability bias for threat-relevant outcomes in flying phobia. Results suggest that time perspective may influence perceived probability of threat-relevant outcomes but the nature of this relationship remains to be determined.
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Hornstein EA, Fanselow MS, Eisenberger NI. A Safe Haven. Psychol Sci 2016; 27:1051-60. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797616646580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael S. Fanselow
- Department of Psychology
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles
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Craske M. Optimizing Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: An Inhibitory Learning and Inhibitory Regulation Approach. VERHALTENSTHERAPIE 2015. [DOI: 10.1159/000381574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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30
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Meyer MM, Buchner A, Bell R. Influences of Age and Emotion on Source Guessing: Are Older Adults More Likely to Show Fear-Relevant Illusory Correlations? J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2015; 71:831-40. [PMID: 25796083 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbv016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The present study investigates age differences in the vulnerability to illusory correlations between fear-relevant stimuli and threatening information. METHOD Younger and older adults saw pictures of threatening snakes and nonthreatening fish, paired with threatening and nonthreatening context information ("poisonous" and "nonpoisonous") with a null contingency between animal type and poisonousness. In a source monitoring test, participants were required to remember whether an animal was associated with poisonousness or nonpoisonousness. Illusory correlations were implicitly measured via a multinomial model. One advantage of this approach is that memory and guessing processes can be assessed independently. An illusory correlation would be reflected in a higher probability of guessing that a snake rather than a fish was poisonous if the poisonousness of the animal was not remembered. RESULTS Older adults showed evidence of illusory correlations in source guessing while younger adults did not; instead they showed evidence of probability matching. Moreover, snake fear was associated with increased vulnerability to illusory correlations in older adults. DISCUSSION The findings confirm that older adults are more susceptible to fear-relevant illusory correlations than younger adults.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Axel Buchner
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Raoul Bell
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
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31
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Hamacher-Dang TC, Merz CJ, Wolf OT. Stress following extinction learning leads to a context-dependent return of fear. Psychophysiology 2014; 52:489-98. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tanja C. Hamacher-Dang
- Department of Cognitive Psychology; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience; Ruhr-University Bochum; Bochum Germany
| | - Christian J. Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience; Ruhr-University Bochum; Bochum Germany
| | - Oliver T. Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience; Ruhr-University Bochum; Bochum Germany
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32
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Carter AE, Carter G, Boschen M, AlShwaimi E, George R. Pathways of fear and anxiety in dentistry: A review. World J Clin Cases 2014; 2:642-53. [PMID: 25405187 PMCID: PMC4233415 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v2.i11.642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this article was to analyze the theories underpinning dental fear, anxiety and phobias. To be included, articles must have been published between the years of 1949 and 2013 concerning fears and phobias within dentistry and/or psychiatry. Of 200 articles originally under review, 140 were included and reviewed by the authors.Five specific pathways relating to dental fear and anxiety were identified; Cognitive Conditioning, Informative, Visual Vicarious, Verbal Threat, and Parental. Eight currently accepted management techniques across all dental disciplines for dental fear and anxiety were identified. Further research is required to identify clinical diagnosis and treatment for fears originating from different pathways.
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Abstract
This paper describes a two-component conditioning model of anxiety disorders whose two main components are an associative process and a process which determines the evaluation of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). It is argued that the inclusion of UCS revaluation processes enables conditioning models to explain a variety of anxiety-related phenomena that hitherto had been difficult to explain solely in associative terms. In particular, (a) experiments are described which suggest that incubation of the conditioned response (CR) can be explained in terms of processes contributing to UCS inflation, (b) the experimental evidence on UCS revaluation is assessed in relation to cognitive processes that might lead to trauma revaluation within specific anxiety disorders, and (c) the role of personality factors in effecting UCS and trauma revaluation is discussed.
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Adaptive Behaviour in Children and Adolescents With and Without an Intellectual Disability: Relationships with Fear and Anxiety. BEHAVIOUR CHANGE 2014. [DOI: 10.1017/s0813483900004083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Prior research has indicated that people with an intellectual disability experience higher levels of negative affect, including anxiety and fearfulness, than people who are not disabled. This is important because research has also suggested a negative relationship between emotional distress and adaptive behaviour, albeit in nondisabled populations. The present study investigates the relationships between fear, anxiety, and adaptive behaviour in children and adolescents with an intellectual disability as compared to youth of average intelligence. A sample ranging in age from 7 to 18 years participated in the study. Fifty-one respondents (30 male, 21 female) constituted the intellectually disabled sample, and 57 (28 male, 29 female) constituted the comparison group. Analysis revealed higher levels of fear and anxiety among the group with disabilities. An inverse relationship was also found between negative affect and adaptive behaviour among the youth with disabilities, but not for youth of average intelligence. The results are discussed in relation to their implications for intervention programs.
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Abstract
Anxiety and depression tend to run in families. This paper reviews some of the family processes that are implicated in the development, maintenance, and treatment of these problems in children and adolescents. Empirical studies and our theoretical review show that social learning processes within the context of intimate relationships are important in the development of anxiety and depression. Family processes have been shown to be important in the treatment of anxiety disorders but parallel evidence is lacking with regard to depression in adolescents. Two models are shown to have demonstrated explanatory power and empirical support: social learning theory and attachment theory. Examples are given of how these models can be contrasted and integrated at both clinical and theoretical levels.
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Craske MG, Treanor M, Conway CC, Zbozinek T, Vervliet B. Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behav Res Ther 2014; 58:10-23. [PMID: 24864005 PMCID: PMC4114726 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1095] [Impact Index Per Article: 109.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Exposure therapy is an effective approach for treating anxiety disorders, although a substantial number of individuals fail to benefit or experience a return of fear after treatment. Research suggests that anxious individuals show deficits in the mechanisms believed to underlie exposure therapy, such as inhibitory learning. Targeting these processes may help improve the efficacy of exposure-based procedures. Although evidence supports an inhibitory learning model of extinction, there has been little discussion of how to implement this model in clinical practice. The primary aim of this paper is to provide examples to clinicians for how to apply this model to optimize exposure therapy with anxious clients, in ways that distinguish it from a 'fear habituation' approach and 'belief disconfirmation' approach within standard cognitive-behavior therapy. Exposure optimization strategies include (1) expectancy violation, (2) deepened extinction, (3) occasional reinforced extinction, (4) removal of safety signals, (5) variability, (6) retrieval cues, (7) multiple contexts, and (8) affect labeling. Case studies illustrate methods of applying these techniques with a variety of anxiety disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, social phobia, specific phobia, and panic disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bram Vervliet
- Center for Excellence on Generalization in Health and Psychopathology, KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Belgium
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Núñez JP, de Vicente F. Unconscious Learning. Conditioning to Subliminal Visual Stimuli. SPANISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2014; 7:13-28. [PMID: 15139245 DOI: 10.1017/s1138741600004716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The role of consciousness in Pavlovian conditioning was examined in two experiments in which visually masked neutral words were used as the conditioned stimuli (CS) and an electric shock as the unconditioned stimulus (US). The inter-stimulus interval (ISI) was established individually. A detection threshold was used in Experiment 1 and an identification threshold in Experiment 2. The primary dependent variable was the skin conductance response (SCR). Results showed that the conditioned response (CR) was acquired by 58% of participants who perceived stimuli above the identification threshold, 50% of participants who perceived stimuli below the detection threshold, and 11% of participants who perceived stimuli below the identification threshold, but above the detection threshold. These results suggest that consciousness of the CS-US contingency is not a necessary condition for acquiring a CR of the autonomous nervous system (ANS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan P Núñez
- Departamento de Psicología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas, Universidad Pontificia de Comillas de Madrid, C/Universidad de Comillas no 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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Raes AK, De Houwer J, De Schryver M, Brass M, Kalisch R. Do CS-US pairings actually matter? A within-subject comparison of instructed fear conditioning with and without actual CS-US pairings. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84888. [PMID: 24465447 PMCID: PMC3900417 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research showed that instructions about CS-US pairings can lead to fear of the CS even when the pairings are never presented. In the present study, we examined whether the experience of CS-US pairings adds to the effect of instructions by comparing instructed conditioning with and without actual CS-US pairings in a within-subject design. Thirty-two participants saw three fractals as CSs (CS+1, CS+2, CS−) and received electric shocks as USs. Before the start of a so-called training phase, participants were instructed that both CS+1 and CS+2 would be followed by the US, but only CS+1 was actually paired with the US. The absence of the US after CS+2 was explained in such a way that participants would not doubt the instructions about the CS+2-US relation. After the training phase, a test phase was carried out. In this phase, participants expected the US after both CS+s but none of the CS+s was actually paired with the US. During test, self-reported fear was initially higher for CS+1 than for CS+2, which indicates that the experience of actual CS-US pairings adds to instructions about these pairings. On the other hand, the CS+s elicited similar skin conductance responses and US expectancies. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- An K. Raes
- Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - Raffael Kalisch
- Institute for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), Hamburg, Germany
- Neuroimaging Center Mainz (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
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39
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An ERP study of the interaction between verbal information and conditioning pathways to fear. Biol Psychol 2013; 92:69-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Revised: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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40
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Gorges J, Kandler C. Adults' learning motivation: Expectancy of success, value, and the role of affective memories. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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41
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Carrillo-Díaz M, Crego A, Armfield J, Romero M. The moderating role of dental expectancies on the relationship between cognitive vulnerability and dental fear in children and adolescents. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2012; 41:269-78. [PMID: 23005253 DOI: 10.1111/cdoe.12009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recently, cognitive approaches have been successfully applied to the understanding of child dental anxiety. Our study aimed to analyze the interplay between cognitive variables and their associations with dental fear. In particular, we proposed that the observed relationship between dental treatment-related cognitive vulnerability (i.e., uncontrollability, unpredictability, dangerousness, and disgustingness appraisals) and dental fear is moderated by the expectancies of the probability and aversiveness of negative events during dental treatments. METHODS A questionnaire survey was conducted with data obtained from 179 participants (8-18 years, 55.9% female) who attended 12 randomly selected educational establishments in Madrid (Spain). RESULTS Dental fear was associated with an irregular pattern of dental visits. As expected, cognitive vulnerability was strongly linked to dental anxiety. For those children who expected a lower likelihood of negative dental events or appraised them in a less aversive way, the relationship between cognitive vulnerability and fear was attenuated. CONCLUSIONS As dental fear and oral health are connected, the prevention and reduction of dental fear among children and adolescents might be a worthwhile target for public health interventions. Our study sheds some light on how this could be achieved, that is, by modifying the children's vulnerability appraisals as well as their fearful dental expectancies.
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Joos E, Vansteenwegen D, Hermans D. Post-acquisition repetitive thought in fear conditioning: an experimental investigation of the effect of CS-US-rehearsal. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2012; 43:737-44. [PMID: 22101140 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Revised: 10/22/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Although repetitive thought (e.g., worry) is generally assumed to be a risk factor for psychopathological disorders such as anxiety disorders, the repetitive thought processes occurring after a conditioning event have not yet received much theoretical attention. However, as repetitive thought can be mimicked by (mental) rehearsal, which is well-known to enhance memory performance, it seems worthwhile to explore the role of rehearsal in conditioning. Therefore, the current study investigates the impact of rehearsing an acquired CS-US-contingency on subsequent conditioned fear responding. METHODS After acquiring two CS-US-contingencies with either a human scream or a white noise as US, participants were instructed to rehearse one of these CS-US-pairings during an experimental session as well as during the following week. RESULTS Fear responding to the CS which was previously paired with the scream persisted in the participants who rehearsed the CS-US(scream)-contingency, but decreased in those participants who rehearsed the CS-US(noise)-contingency. The same pattern emerged in the US-expectancy ratings, but the effect failed to reach significance. For the CS which was paired with the noise-US, no rehearsal effect emerged. LIMITATIONS As acquisition to the noise-US was less pronounced and less robust as compared to the scream-US, claims regarding the rehearsal effect might be hampered for the CS-US(noise)-contingency. CONCLUSIONS Repetitive post-acquisition activation of a CS-US-contingency impacts CR retention. As the USs were not rated as more intense, aversive or startling after rehearsal compared to post-acquisition, US-inflation is discarded as a possible explanation of this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Els Joos
- Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, Box 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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Gottlieb DA, Prince EB. Isolated effects of number of acquisition trials on extinction of rat conditioned approach behavior. Behav Processes 2012; 90:34-48. [PMID: 22475497 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Four conditioned approach experiments with rats assessed for effects of number of acquisition trials on extinction of conditioned responding, when number of acquisition sessions and total acquisition time were held constant. In Experiment 1, 32 trials per acquisition session led to more extinction responding than did 1 or 2 trials per session but less than did 4 trials per session. In Experiment 2, 2 trials per acquisition session led to more spontaneous recovery than did 32 trials per session. These latter findings are reminiscent of the overtraining extinction effect (OEE). Experiment 3 attempted to reduce the OEE with a preconditioning phase of partial reinforcement. Experiment 4 attempted to reduce the beneficial within-subject effects of increasing the number of acquisition trials on extinction observed by Gottlieb and Rescorla (2010) by extinguishing stimuli in different sessions. Overall, results suggest a procedural asymmetry: between-subject, increasing the number of trials between any pair of trials does not lead to greater persistence of responding during extinction; within-subject, it does. Results are discussed from an associative perspective, with a focus on explanations involving either frustration or comparator mechanisms, and from an information processing perspective, with a focus on Rate Estimation Theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Gottlieb
- Department of Psychology, Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, VA 24595, USA.
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Dunsmoor JE, Martin A, LaBar KS. Role of conceptual knowledge in learning and retention of conditioned fear. Biol Psychol 2012; 89:300-5. [PMID: 22118937 PMCID: PMC3269535 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2011] [Revised: 11/08/2011] [Accepted: 11/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Associating sensory cues with aversive outcomes is a relatively basic process shared across species. Yet higher-order cognitive processes likely contribute to associative fear learning in many circumstances, especially in humans. Here we ask whether fears can be acquired based on conceptual knowledge of object categories, and whether such concept-based fear conditioning leads to enhanced memory representations for conditioned objects. Participants were presented with a heterogeneous collection of images of animals and tools. Objects from one category were reinforced by an electrical shock, whereas the other category was never reinforced. Results confirmed concept-based fear learning through subjective report of shock expectancy, heightened skin conductance responses, and enhanced 24h recognition memory for items from the conditioned category. These results provide novel evidence that conditioned fear can generalize through knowledge of object concepts, and sheds light on the persistent nature of fear memories and category-based fear responses symptomatic of some anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E. Dunsmoor
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Alex Martin
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kevin S. LaBar
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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Muris P, Merckelbach H. Specific Phobia: Phenomenology, Epidemiology, and Etiology. INTENSIVE ONE-SESSION TREATMENT OF SPECIFIC PHOBIAS 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3253-1_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Laborda MA, Miller RR. S-R associations, their extinction, and recovery in an animal model of anxiety: a new associative account of phobias without recall of original trauma. Behav Ther 2011; 42:153-69. [PMID: 21496503 PMCID: PMC3474845 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2010.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2010] [Revised: 05/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Associative accounts of the etiology of phobias have been criticized because of numerous cases of phobias in which the client does not remember a relevant traumatic event (i.e., Pavlovian conditioning trial), instructions, or vicarious experience with the phobic object. In three lick suppression experiments with rats as subjects, we modeled an associative account of such fears. Experiment 1 assessed stimulus-response (S-R) associations in first-order fear conditioning. After behaviorally complete devaluation of the unconditioned stimulus, the target stimulus still produced strong conditioned responses, suggesting that an S-R association had been formed and that this association was not significantly affected when the outcome was devalued through unsignaled presentations of the unconditioned stimulus. Experiments 2 and 3 examined extinction and recovery of S-R associations. Experiment 2 showed that extinguished S-R associations returned when testing occurred outside of the extinction context (i.e., renewal) and Experiment 3 found that a long delay between extinction and testing also produced a return of the extinguished S-R associations (i.e., spontaneous recovery). These experiments suggest that fears for which people cannot recall a cause are explicable in an associative framework, and indicate that those fears are susceptible to relapse after extinction treatment just like stimulus-outcome (S-O) associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario A Laborda
- State University of New York, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA
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Raes AK, De Houwer J, Verschuere B, De Raedt R. Return of fear after retrospective inferences about the absence of an unconditioned stimulus during extinction. Behav Res Ther 2011; 49:212-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2010.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Dunsmoor JE, White AJ, LaBar KS. Conceptual similarity promotes generalization of higher order fear learning. Learn Mem 2011; 18:156-60. [PMID: 21330378 PMCID: PMC3056515 DOI: 10.1101/lm.2016411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We tested the hypothesis that conceptual similarity promotes generalization of conditioned fear. Using a sensory preconditioning procedure, three groups of subjects learned an association between two cues that were conceptually similar, unrelated, or mismatched. Next, one of the cues was paired with a shock. The other cue was then reintroduced to test for fear generalization, as measured by the skin conductance response. Results showed enhanced fear generalization that correlated with trait anxiety levels in the group that learned an association between conceptually similar stimuli. These findings suggest that conceptual representations of conditional stimuli influence human fear learning processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kevin S. LaBar
- Center for Cognitve Neuroscience and Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708, USA
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Lommen MJ, Engelhard IM, van den Hout MA. Neuroticism and avoidance of ambiguous stimuli: Better safe than sorry? PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Hermans D, Spruyt A, Eelen P. Automatic affective priming of recently acquired stimulus valence: Priming at SOA 300 but not at SOA 1000. Cogn Emot 2010; 17:83-99. [DOI: 10.1080/02699930302276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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