Escherichia coli xthA mutant is not hypersensitive to ascorbic acid/copper treatment--an H2O2 generating reaction

Neutrophils to the ROScue: Mechanisms of NADPH Oxidase Activation and Bacterial Resistance

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by NADPH oxidase play an important role in antimicrobial host defense and inflammation. Their deficiency in humans results in recurrent and severe bacterial infections, while their unregulated release leads to pathology from excessive inflammation. The release of high concentrations of ROS aids in clearance of invading bacteria. Localization of ROS release to phagosomes containing pathogens limits tissue damage. Host immune cells, like neutrophils, also known as PMNs, will release large amounts of ROS at the site of infection following the activation of surface receptors. The binding of ligands to G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), toll-like receptors, and cytokine receptors can prime PMNs for a more robust response if additional signals are encountered. Meanwhile, activation of Fc and integrin directly induces high levels of ROS production. Additionally, GPCRs that bind to the bacterial-peptide analog fMLP, a neutrophil chemoattractant, can both prime cells and trigger low levels of ROS production. Engagement of these receptors initiates intracellular signaling pathways, resulting in activation of downstream effector proteins, assembly of the NADPH oxidase complex, and ultimately, the production of ROS by this complex. Within PMNs, ROS released by the NADPH oxidase complex can activate granular proteases and induce the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Additionally, ROS can cross the membranes of bacterial pathogens and damage their nucleic acids, proteins, and cell membranes. Consequently, in order to establish infections, bacterial pathogens employ various strategies to prevent restriction by PMN-derived ROS or downstream consequences of ROS production. Some pathogens are able to directly prevent the oxidative burst of phagocytes using secreted effector proteins or toxins that interfere with translocation of the NADPH oxidase complex or signaling pathways needed for its activation. Nonetheless, these pathogens often rely on repair and detoxifying proteins in addition to these secreted effectors and toxins in order to resist mammalian sources of ROS. This suggests that pathogens have both intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms to avoid restriction by PMN-derived ROS. Here, we review mechanisms of oxidative burst in PMNs in response to bacterial infections, as well as the mechanisms by which bacterial pathogens thwart restriction by ROS to survive under conditions of oxidative stress.

Decreased resistance to antibiotics and plasmid loss in plasmid-carrying strains of Staphylococcus aureus treated with ascorbic acid

The effect of ascorbic acid on plasmid-coded antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus was investigated. Several strains of S. aureus were cultured in the presence of 1 mM ascorbate for 6 h. This treatment induced an increased loss of resistance markers in 4 of 6 strains tested, and agarose gel electrophoresis showed this disappearance of plasmid DNA in ascorbate-induced susceptible colonies. The presence of ascorbate induced a 50-75% decrease in minimal inhibitory concentrations of different antibiotics for resistant strains. When ascorbate is added, formerly subinhibitory concentrations of penicillin or tetracycline have an increased inhibitory effect on resistant strains and even induced the death of 25-93% of the initial population. These results suggest that ascorbate can induce the loss of several plasmids of S. aureus, and that the levels of antibiotic resistance are also affected by the presence of this compound.

Superoxide dismutase and media dependence of far-UV radiation resistance in thiol-treated cells

Pretreatment of wild-type Escherichia coli K12 cells with dithiothreitol (DTT) induces far-UV radiation resistance after the thiol is removed (Claycamp 1988). The present study shows that a 1 h treatment of cells with DTT in minimal medium followed by a 0.5 h incubation in buffer (37 degrees C) results in a dose reduction factor (DRF) calculated at F37 of 1.81. When the thiol pretreatment was in rich medium, sensitization occurs with DRF = 0.729. This sensitization could be reversed to protection by inhibiting extracellular thiol oxidation in rich medium with the chelator, DETAPAC, such that the thiol oxidation rate was equivalent to that of DTT in minimal medium. Both thiol-induced resistance and sensitization produced changes predominantly in the shoulders of the survival curves. Furthermore, for either protection or sensitization, at least one form of endogenous superoxide dismutase (SOD) was required: in SOD-deficient cells (sodAsodB) the DRFs were 1.08 and 0.882 for minimal and rich media, respectively. These results suggest that different targets are involved in thiol-induced UV protection and sensitization: DNA and extracellular targets (e.g. the membrane), respectively. The results augment observations of alternate and multiple repair pathways inducible by oxygen radicals and may help understanding non-physicochemical thiol protection mechanisms.