Dynamics of central nervous activation during motor imagination

Effects of Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectations on Motor Imagery-Induced Thermal and Mechanical Hypoalgesia: A Single-Blind Randomised Controlled Trial

The main aim of this study was to assess whether self-efficacy (SE) and outcome expectations (OEs) modulate the hypoalgesic effect induced by motor imagery (MI). A total of 75 asymptomatic participants were randomly assigned to the positive (SE+, OE+), negative (SE-, OE-) or non-expectation (CG) groups. Heat pain threshold (HPT) and pain pressure threshold (PPT) were the main variables. Cold detection threshold (CDT), warm detection threshold (WDT), heart rate (HR) and perceived fatigue were the secondary variables. The variables were assessed preintervention, immediately postintervention and 10 min postintervention, except for HR, which was measured continuously during the intervention. Regarding HPT, significant within-group pre-post differences were found in the OE+ group, with a low effect size (p = 0.01, d = -0.39). With regard to ΔPPT, significant intergroup differences were found in Δpost-pre between the SE+ and CG groups (p = 0.012, d = 1.04) and also between SE+ and OE- (p = 0.006, d = 1.08), both with a large effect size. CG, SE-, and OE- groups had poorer CDT and WDT. Regarding HR, significant intergroup differences were found in the postintervention measurement between OE+ and SE-, with a large effect size (p = 0.016, d = 1.34). Lastly, no between-group differences were found regarding perceived fatigue (p > 0.05). The results obtained showed that positive expectations have a slight influence on the increase in heat and mechanical pain detection thresholds. Positive and non-expectancy groups showed an autonomic activation. The results also showed that negative expectations led to poorer perceptual processes.

Mental fatigue induced by prolonged motor imagery increases perception of effort and the activity of motor areas

Recent literature suggests that when prolonged, motor imagery (MI) induces mental fatigue and negatively impacts subsequent physical exercise. The aim of this study was to confirm this possibility with neurophysiological and self-reported measures. Thirteen participants performed 200 imagined isometric knee extension contractions (Prolonged MI condition) or watched a documentary (Control condition), and then performed 150 actual isometric knee extensions. Electroencephalography was continuously recorded to obtain motor-related cortical potential amplitude at Cz electrode (MRCP, index of motor area activity) for each imagined and actual contraction. Electromyography of the vastus lateralis muscle as well as the perceived effort required to perform prolonged MI, watch the documentary, and perform the actual contractions were measured. During prolonged MI, mental fatigue level, the effort required to imagine the contractions and MRCP amplitude increased over time. The increase in the effort required to imagine the contractions was significantly correlated with the MRCP amplitude. During the physical exercise, a significant condition × time interaction revealed a greater increase over time in perceived effort in the prolonged MI condition compared to the control condition, as well as a specific alteration in EMG RMS of the vastus lateralis muscle. These alterations observed in the presence of mental fatigue during actual contractions, combined with those observed during prolonged MI, suggest that prolonged MI may impair the motor command required to perform imagined or actual contractions. While the observed effect of mental fatigue on MRCP amplitude was clear during MI, future studies should tailor the physical exercise to minimize the exercise-induced decrease in force production capacity and control for its confounding effects on MRCP amplitude in the presence of mental fatigue.

Reward sensitivity and electrodermal responses to actions and outcomes in a go/no-go task

Skin conductance response (SCR) is used in psychophysiological research to measure the reactions of the autonomic nervous system to reward and punishment. While there is consistent evidence that SCR increases to both aversive and appetitive stimuli, it remains unclear whether SCR simply represents a general index of arousal to motivationally significant outcomes or may also differentiate action or inhibition of action that lead to such outcomes. Furthermore, individual differences in trait sensitivity to reward and punishment can influence physiological arousal during approach and avoidance behaviors. Yet, their inter-relationships have not been examined. To address these gaps, we employed a reward go/no-go task with ⅔ go and ⅓ no-go trials and an individually titrated go response window. Correct go and no-go responses were rewarded while incorrect responses were penalized. We examined whether SCR varied with outcome (win vs. loss), action (go vs. no-go), and individual differences in reward sensitivity (SR) and sex. The results showed greater SCRs to loss vs. win, to go vs. no-go success, and to go success in positive correlation with SR. Further, SCR mediated the relationship between SR and go success rate. In sex differences, men exhibited greater SCR which was more predictive of go success rate relative to women. In contrast, SCR was more predictive of no-go success rate in women. Thus, SCR varies according to behavioral contingency, outcome, sex, and reward sensitivity. These findings add to the literature by characterizing the individual and behavioral factors that may influence physiological arousal in response to salient events.

Combining motor imagery with action observation training does not lead to a greater autonomic nervous system response than motor imagery alone during simple and functional movements: a randomized controlled trial

Both motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) trigger the activation of the neurocognitive mechanisms that underlie the planning and execution of voluntary movements in a manner that resembles how the action is performed in a real way. The main objective of the present study was to compare the autonomic nervous system (ANS) response in an isolated MI group compared to a combined MI + AO group. The mental tasks were based on two simple movements that are recorded in the revised movement imagery questionnaire in third-person perspective. The secondary objective of the study was to test if there was any relationship between the ANS variables and the ability to generate mental motor imagery, the mental chronometry and the level of physical activity. The main outcomes that were measured were heart rate, respiratory rate and electrodermal activity. A Biopac MP150 system, a measurement device of autonomic changes, was used for the quantification and evaluation of autonomic variables. Forty five asymptomatic subjects were selected and randomized in three groups: isolated MI, MI + AO and control group (CG). In regards to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), no differences were observed between MI and MI + AO groups (p > .05), although some differences were found between both groups when compared to the CG (p < .05). Additionally, even though no associations were reported between the ANS variables and the ability to generate mental motor imagery, moderate-strong positive associations were found in mental chronometry and the level of physical activity. Our results suggest that MI and MI + AO, lead to an activation of the SNS, although there are no significant differences between the two groups. Based on results obtained, we suggest that tasks of low complexity, providing a visual input through the AO does not facilitates their subsequent motor imagination. A higher level of physical activity as well as a longer time to perform mental task, seem to be associated with a greater increase in the ANS response.

EEG Brain Activity in Dynamic Health Qigong Training: Same Effects for Mental Practice and Physical Training?

In recent years, there has been significant uptake of meditation and related relaxation techniques, as a means of alleviating stress and fostering an attentive mind. Several electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have reported changes in spectral band frequencies during Qigong meditation indicating a relaxed state. Much less is reported on effects of brain activation patterns induced by Qigong techniques involving bodily movement. In this study, we tested whether (1) physical Qigong training alters EEG theta and alpha activation, and (2) mental practice induces the same effect as a physical Qigong training. Subjects performed the dynamic Health Qigong technique Wu Qin Xi (five animals) physically and by mental practice in a within-subjects design. Experimental conditions were randomized. Two 2-min (eyes-open, eyes-closed) EEG sequences under resting conditions were recorded before and immediately after each 15-min exercise. Analyses of variance were performed for spectral power density data. Increased alpha power was found in posterior regions in mental practice and physical training for eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions. Theta power was increased after mental practice in central areas in eyes-open conditions, decreased in fronto-central areas in eyes-closed conditions. Results suggest that mental, as well as physical Qigong training, increases alpha activity and therefore induces a relaxed state of mind. The observed differences in theta activity indicate different attentional processes in physical and mental Qigong training. No difference in theta activity was obtained in physical and mental Qigong training for eyes-open and eyes-closed resting state. In contrast, mental practice of Qigong entails a high degree of internalized attention that correlates with theta activity, and that is dependent on eyes-open and eyes-closed resting state.

Brain Oscillations in Sport: Toward EEG Biomarkers of Performance

Brain dynamics is at the basis of top performance accomplishment in sports. The search for neural biomarkers of performance remains a challenge in movement science and sport psychology. The non-invasive nature of high-density electroencephalography (EEG) recording has made it a most promising avenue for providing quantitative feedback to practitioners and coaches. Here, we review the current relevance of the main types of EEG oscillations in order to trace a perspective for future practical applications of EEG and event-related potentials (ERP) in sport. In this context, the hypotheses of unified brain rhythms and continuity between wake and sleep states should provide a functional template for EEG biomarkers in sport. The oscillations in the thalamo-cortical and hippocampal circuitry including the physiology of the place cells and the grid cells provide a frame of reference for the analysis of delta, theta, beta, alpha (incl.mu), and gamma oscillations recorded in the space field of human performance. Based on recent neuronal models facilitating the distinction between the different dynamic regimes (selective gating and binding) in these different oscillations we suggest an integrated approach articulating together the classical biomechanical factors (3D movements and EMG) and the high-density EEG and ERP signals to allow finer mathematical analysis to optimize sport performance, such as microstates, coherency/directionality analysis and neural generators.

Motor imagery muscle contraction strength influences spinal motor neuron excitability and cardiac sympathetic nerve activity

[Purpose] The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in spinal motor neuron excitability and autonomic nervous system activity during motor imagery of isometric thenar muscle activity at 10% and 50% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). [Methods] The F-waves and low frequency/high frequency (LF/HF) ratio were recorded at rest, during motor imagery, and post-trial. For motor imagery trials, subjects were instructed to imagine thenar muscle activity at 10% and 50% MVC while holding the sensor of a pinch meter for 5 min. [Results] The F-waves and LF/HF ratio during motor imagery at 50% MVC were significantly increased compared with those at rest, whereas those during motor imagery at 10% MVC were not significantly different from those at rest. The relative values of the F/M amplitude ratio during motor imagery at 50% MVC were significantly higher than those at 10% MVC. The relative values of persistence and the LF/HF ratio during motor imagery were similar during motor imagery at the two muscle contraction strengths. [Conclusion] Motor imagery can increase the spinal motor neuron excitability and cardiac sympathetic nerve activity. Motor imagery at 50% MVC may be more effective than motor imagery at 10% MVC.

Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity Predicts Physiological Arousal in a Narrative Task

Physiological arousal that occurs during narrative production is thought to reflect emotional processing and cognitive effort (Bar-Haim et al. in Dev Psychobiol 44:238-249, 2004). The purpose of this study was to determine whether individual differences in visuospatial working memory and/or verbal working memory capacity predict physiological arousal in a narrative task. Visuospatial working memory was a significant predictor of skin conductance level (SCL); verbal working memory was not. When visuospatial working memory interference was imposed, visuospatial working memory was no longer a significant predictor of SCL. Visuospatial interference also resulted in a significant reduction in SCL. Furthermore, listener ratings of narrative quality were contingent upon the visuospatial working memory resources of the narrator. Potential implications for educators and clinical practitioners are discussed.

Physiological changes in response to apnea impact the timing of motor representations: a preliminary study

Background

Reduced physiological arousal in response to breath-holding affects internal clock processes, leading swimmers to underestimate the time spent under apnea. We investigated whether reduced physiological arousal during static apnea was likely to affect the temporal organization of motor imagery (MI).

Methods

Fourteen inter-regional to national breath-holding athletes mentally and physically performed two 15 m swimming tasks of identical durations. They performed the two sequences in a counterbalanced order, the first while breathing normally using a scuba, the second under apnea. We assessed MI duration immediately after completion of the corresponding task. Athletes performed MI with and without holding breath.

Results

MI durations (26.1 s ± 8.22) were significantly shorter than actual durations (29.7 s ± 7.6) without holding breath. Apnea increased MI durations by 10% (± 5%). Heart rate decrease in response to breath-holding correlated with MI durations increase (p < .01). Under apnea, participants achieved temporal congruence between MI and PP only when performing MI of the apnea swimming task. Self-report data indicated greater ease when MI was performed in a physiological arousal state congruent with that of the corresponding motor task.

Conclusions

Physiological arousal affected the durations of MI through its effects on internal clock processes and by impacting the congruency in physiological body states between overt and covert motor performance. Present findings have potential implications with regards to the possibility of preventing underestimation of durations spent under a state of reduced physiological arousal.

Autonomic nervous system correlates in movement observation and motor imagery

The purpose of the current article is to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature offering a better understanding of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) correlates in motor imagery (MI) and movement observation. These are two high brain functions involving sensori-motor coupling, mediated by memory systems. How observing or mentally rehearsing a movement affect ANS activity has not been extensively investigated. The links between cognitive functions and ANS responses are not so obvious. We will first describe the organization of the ANS whose main purposes are controlling vital functions by maintaining the homeostasis of the organism and providing adaptive responses when changes occur either in the external or internal milieu. We will then review how scientific knowledge evolved, thus integrating recent findings related to ANS functioning, and show how these are linked to mental functions. In turn, we will describe how movement observation or MI may elicit physiological responses at the peripheral level of the autonomic effectors, thus eliciting autonomic correlates to cognitive activity. Key features of this paper are to draw a step-by step progression from the understanding of ANS physiology to its relationships with high mental processes such as movement observation or MI. We will further provide evidence that mental processes are co-programmed both at the somatic and autonomic levels of the central nervous system (CNS). We will thus detail how peripheral physiological responses may be analyzed to provide objective evidence that MI is actually performed. The main perspective is thus to consider that, during movement observation and MI, ANS activity is an objective witness of mental processes.

Befunde aus EEG-Untersuchungen zum Mentalen Training

Mentales Training (MT) im Sinne der planmäßig wiederholten Vorstellung eines Bewegungsablaufes ist ein zentraler Gegenstand sportpsychologischer Forschung. Im Hochleistungssport und in der Rehabilitation wird es zur Optimierung von Bewegungen eingesetzt. Einen Erklärungsansatz der Trainingswirkung bietet die Simulationstheorie mit dem zentralen Postulat, dass Bewegungsausführung und -vorstellung gleiche neuronale Strukturen aktivieren (funktionale Äquivalenz). Diese Annahme wurde mittels verschiedener neurophysiologischer Methoden geprüft, die teils zu widersprüchlichen Befunden führten. Die Elektroenzephalographie (EEG) kann unserer Ansicht nach dabei helfen, Lücken im theoretischen Erkenntnisprozess zu schließen. In diesem Artikel geben wir einen Überblick über die aktuelle Befundlage zum Mentalen Training mittels EEG. Es sollen drei wesentliche Vorteile der Methode aufgezeigt werden: (a) das EEG liefert Maße der neurophysiologischen Aktivität mit hoher zeitlicher Auflösung, (b) technische Weiterentwicklungen (drahtlose Hardware, tragbare Ausrüstung) erlauben die notwendige Bewegungsfreiheit für eine Anwendung im Sportkontext und (c) in der Rehabilitation kann die Vorstellung von Bewegungen als mentale Strategie dienen, um eine Neuroprothese auf Basis von Hirnsignalen zu steuern.

Motor imagery may incorporate trial-to-trial error

The authors tested for 1/f noise in motor imagery (MI). Participants pointed and imagined pointing to a single target (Experiment 1), to targets of varied size (Experiment 2), and switched between pointing and grasping (Experiment 3). Experiment 1 showed comparable patterns of serial correlation in actual and imagined movement. Experiment 2 suggested increased correlation for MI and performance with increased task difficulty, perhaps reflecting adaptation to a more complex environment. Experiment 3 suggested a parallel decrease in correlation with task switching, perhaps reflecting discontinuity of mental set. Although present results do not conclusively reveal 1/f fluctuation, the emergent patterns suggest that MI could incorporate trial-to-trial error across a range of constraints.

Discrete and effortful imagined movements do not specifically activate the autonomic nervous system

Background

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is activated in parallel with the motor system during cyclical and effortful imagined actions. However, it is not clear whether the ANS is activated during motor imagery of discrete movements and whether this activation is specific to the movement being imagined. Here, we explored these topics by studying the baroreflex control of the cardiovascular system.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Arterial pressure and heart rate were recorded in ten subjects who executed or imagined trunk or leg movements against gravity. Trunk and leg movements result in different physiological reactions (orthostatic hypotension phenomenon) when they are executed. Interestingly, ANS activation significantly, but similarly, increased during imagined trunk and leg movements. Furthermore, we did not observe any physiological modulation during a control mental-arithmetic task or during motor imagery of effortless movements (horizontal wrist displacements).

Conclusions/Significance

We concluded that ANS activation during motor imagery is general and not specific and physiologically prepares the organism for the upcoming effortful action.

Phasic heart rate changes during word translation of different difficulties

The heart rate (HR) can be modulated by diverse mental activities ranging from stimulus anticipation to higher order cognitive information processing. In the present study we report on HR changes during word translation and examine how the HR is influenced by the difficulty of the translation task. Twelve students of translation and interpreting were presented English high- and low-frequency words as well as familiar and unfamiliar technical terms that had to be translated into German. Analyses revealed that words of higher translation difficulty were accompanied by a more pronounced HR deceleration than words that were easier to translate. We additionally show that anticipatory HR deceleration and HR changes induced by motor preparation and activity due to typing the translation do not depend on task difficulty. These results provide first evidence of a link between task difficulty in language translation and event-related HR changes.

Effects of imagery training on cognitive performance and use of physiological measures as an assessment tool of mental effort

The effectiveness of motor imagery training on cognitive performance was examined and the physiological mechanisms involved in the contribution of mental practice to motor learning were considered. The subject's mental effort during motor imagery was assessed by using psychophysiological measures and particularly eye blink activity as an 'indirect' measurement of subjects' attention. An electronic flight simulation program (Multiple Attribute Task Battery--MATB) was used to assess performance. Twenty healthy volunteers participated in the study divided in two groups: the control group and the imagery-training group. The subjects of the imagery group were asked for additional imagery training. The subjects of the actual performing group were asked additionally to passively observe the task in order to have equal time of exposure to the task. Performance scores and physiological parameters such as heart rate, respiratory rate, eye blinking activity and muscular activity were recorded during all sessions. The results revealed significantly higher performance level of the imagery-training group than the control group. Heart rate and respiratory rate significantly increased during imagery sessions compared to rest. A slight electromyographic activity was observed during the imagination of movement. Our findings support the notion that mental practice improves motor performance in a task where spatiotemporal or dynamic control of the action is highly required. The effects of mental practice on motor performance could be explained by the existence of a top-down mechanism based on the activation of a central representation of the movements, since the vegetative activation during motor imagery seems to be centrally controlled.

Observation of action and autonomic nervous system responses

Observing somebody performing an action has been shown to elicit neuronal activity in the premotor cortex. This paper investigated physiological effect of observing an effortful action at the peripheral level. As Autonomic Nervous System responses reflect central nervous system processes such as movement planning and programming, it was expected that observing an action would elicit a pattern of ANS responses matching those recorded during actual movement. 12 male subjects, ages 23 to 28 years (M = 25.5, SD = 1.9), were selected as they were experienced in weight lifting. They were asked to observe a squat movement followed by returning to the upright position under 3 different conditions: (i) observation of actual movement performed by somebody else, (ii) observation of a video of the subject himself (first-person video), and (iii) observation of a video of somebody else performing the same movement (third-person video). Moreover, each movement was observed when performed at 50% and 90% of each participant's personal best mark (% of the highest weight which could be lifted). Three ANS parameters were continuously recorded: skin resistance, temperature and heart rate. ANS responses varied as a function of movement intensity: autonomic responses recorded during movement observation at 90% were significantly higher and longer than those recorded during movement observation at 50%. Thus, autonomic responses were linked to the amount of observed effort. Conversely, no difference was found among the three conditions of observation. ANS responses from observation of actual movement were shown to resemble those recorded under the two conditions of video observation.

Contribution from neurophysiological and psychological methods to the study of motor imagery

This paper reviews studies on neurophysiological and behavioral methods used to evaluate motor imagery accuracy. These methods can be used when performed in the field and are based on recordings of peripheral indices such as autonomic nervous system or electromyographic activities, mental chronometry and psychological tests. Providing physiological signs that correlate to these types of mental processes may be considered an objective approach for motor imagery analysis. However, although autonomic nervous system activity recording has been shown to match motor imagery in real time, to evaluate its accuracy qualitatively and the individual ability to form mental images, the relationship between physiological responses and mental processes remains an inference. Moreover, electromyographic recordings may be associated with postural control data, but due to inconsistent results, they remain insufficient to solely evaluate motor imagery accuracy. Other techniques traditionally used in psychology and cognitive psychology are questionnaires, "debriefing" with subjects and mental chronometry. Although such methods lead to interesting results, there remains an important part of subjectivity as subjects perform an auto-evaluation of motor imagery accuracy. Similarly, mental chronometry gives information on the ability to preserve temporal organization of movement but does not allow the evaluation of the vividness of mental images. Thus, several methods should be combined to analyze motor imagery accuracy in greater detail. Neurophysiological recordings cannot therefore be considered an alternative but rather a complementary technique to behavioral and psychological methods. The advantages and inconvenient of each technique and the hypotheses that could be tested are discussed.

Duration of mentally simulated movement: a review

The authors review studies of mentally simulated movements. In automatic or cyclical movements, actual and motor imagery (MI) durations are similar. When athletes simulate only dynamic phases of movement or perform MI just before competing, however, environmental and time constraints lead to an underestimation of actual duration. Conversely, complex attention-demanding movements take longer to image. Finally, participants can modify the speed of MI voluntarily when they receive specific instructions. To complete the available data, the authors compared imagined and actual durations in tennis and gymnastics. Results showed systematic and disproportionate overestimation of actual duration. The authors found a relationship between complex motor skills and MI duration. They discuss the factors leading to over- and underestimation and the hypotheses that could be tested.

Autonomic Nervous System Activity During Actual and Mentally Simulated Preparation for Movement

The aim of this study was to compare actual versus mentally simulated preparation for a complex motor skill. Two behavioral periods are observed during weightlifting: (i) an initial phase in which the subject standing behind the bar is thought to focus his attention on forthcoming execution and (ii) a second phase between hands/bar contact and execution during which the subject is thought to increase activation. Such mental processes accompanying behavioral sequences are correlated with autonomic nervous system activity, phasic responses corresponding to allocation of attentional resources, and tonic variations related to increasing general activation. To study mental processes during preparation for action, 12 subjects performed actual and imagined preparation phases of execution. Six autonomic variables were measured continuously. Skin potential (chi2 = 0.16), skin temperature amplitude (Z = -0.66) and duration (Z = -1.78), skin blood flow amplitude (Z = -0.56) and duration (Z = -1.51), respiratory frequency amplitude (Z = -0.14) and duration (Z = -0.13), and duration of heart rate response (Z = -1.25) were shown to be comparable (p > .05), whatever the modality of preparation. However, during mentally simulated preparation, skin resistance response was shorter than in actual preparation (Z = -2.12, p < .05), thus attesting to a weaker load, whereas lower decrease in heart rate was elicited (Z = -1.96, p < .05). This may be explained by this particular experimental condition because mental preparation would not lead to actual action. Such autonomic variables could be used as feedback to improve performance.

Relationship Between Visual and Kinesthetic Imagery, Field Dependence-Independence, and Complex Motor Skills

Abstract: Visual imagery (VI) involves self-visualization of action, whereas kinesthetic imagery (KI) implies somesthetic sensations elicited by action. Motor imagery (MI) has been shown to enhance motor performance but inconsistent results were obtained depending on the respective impacts of VI and KI. It is hypothesized here that the type of MI may interact with individual characteristics such as field dependence-independence. As subjects' movements can be mainly checked out through exteroceptive or proprioceptive information, task requirements were also expected to influence MI. Witkin's Group Embedded Figures Test was implemented with two groups (n1 = 10 gymnasts, n2 = 10 tennis players). Athletes were asked to imagine a complex motor skill by alternate use of VI and KI. Skin resistance was selected as a peripheral indicator of MI and recorded continuously. Autonomic responses were compared by computing the VI/KI ratio. Results taking both the field-dependence test and MI type into account were not as clear as expected. As hypothesized, gymnasts were more field-independent than tennis players. VI/KI ratio analysis showed that a similar pattern was observed in the gymnasts group (ratio close to 1.0), whatever the type of imagery. This suggests that gymnasts are equally able to perform VI and KI. Fifty percent of the tennis players group showed a ratio higher than 1.0, suggesting that VI was more effective than KI. Conversely, the remaining 50% showed a below-1.0 ratio, suggesting more effective KI. Thus, some tennis players may make better use of VI than KI, and conversely some may make better use of KI than VI. These results indicate that MI training may be relatively independent of task requirements and be based mainly upon individual characteristics such as MI abilities. Finally, results indicate systematic overestimation in self-estimation of movement duration during MI, which was greater during KI than during VI, suggesting that athletes have greater trouble in feeling than in visualizing movement.

Assessment of isometric contractions performed with maximal subjective effort: corresponding results for EEG changes and force measurements

In order to find a parameter or parameters that can be attributed to movements performed with maximal subjective effort, EEG recordings and force measurements were taken in connection with isometric muscle contractions performed with 80% of the subjective maximal force (IMC80) or with maximal subjective effort (IMC100). Criteria based on EEG recordings and force measurements have been considered as indicators for maximal subjective effort in a given movement. The following criteria were selected: A. If the mean spectral theta amplitude across the parieto-occipital area decreases from IMC80 to IMC100 then the isometric contraction is taken to be performed with maximal effort; B. If the obtained force values can be fitted to a switch function and if the achieved forces are only a predetermined percentage lower than the maximal force value obtained over all trials then this isometric contraction is accepted to be performed with maximal effort. 18 out of 24 cases fulfill the EEG criterion whereas the criterion for force measurements is fulfilled in 16 out of 24 trials. The comparison between the results obtained by means of the EEG criterion and by means of criterion for force measurement shows that the results are in agreement in 22 out of 24 cases (p < .001). The high correspondence of the assessments allows us to suspect that both criteria specify the same phenomenon, namely the performance of a motor task with maximal subjective effort.

Ventilatory responses to imagined exercise

We studied whether the ventilatory responses to imagined exercise are influenced by automatic processes. Twentynine athletes produced mental images of a sport event with successive focus on the environment, the preparation, and the exercise. Mean breathing frequency increased from 15 to 22 breaths/min. Five participants reported having voluntarily controlled breathing, two of them during preparation. Twenty participants reported that their breathing pattern changed during the experiment: 11 participants were unable to correctly report on the direction of changes in frequency, and 13 incorrectly reported changes in amplitude. This finding suggests that these changes were not voluntary in most participants and may therefore reveal automatic forebrain influences on exercise hyperpnea. However, these changes may also reflect nonspecific processes (e.g., arousal) different from those occurring during actual exercise.

Neural representations for action

Goal directed behaviour is often internally generated which implies that the generation of action involves a representational step. One of the challenges of cognitive neuroscience is to discover the neural mechanism that underlies the representation of both intention and goal and fuses them into an integrated action. This paper reviews neurophysiological data gathered from different sorts of paradigms that reveal the presence of underlying neural processes which can be related to representations for action. Taken together, these data lead to the notion of distributed representations stored as patterns of activation networks.

The neurophysiological basis of motor imagery

Motor imagery may be defined as a dynamic state during which representations of a given motor act are internally rehearsed in working memory without any overt motor output. What neural processes underlie the generation of motor imagery? This paper reviews physiological evidence from measurements of regional brain activity and from measurements of autonomic responses in normal subjects and behavioral observations from brain damaged patients. It is proposed that motor imagery shares neural mechanisms with processes used in motor control. This review emphasizes the importance of the prefrontal cortex and its connections to the basal ganglia in maintaining dynamic motor representations in working memory. This view fits with the general idea that the prefrontal cortex is responsible for the creation and maintenance of explicit representations that guide thought and action.

The relationship between quantified EEG and skin conductance level

Electroencephalographic measures (EEG) and skin conductance level (SCL) respectively reflect cerebral cortical activity and sympathetic autonomic activity. Such central and autonomic activities associated with arousal generally have been studied separately, despite their potential to reflect complementary dimensions of reticular-thalamo-hypothalamo-cortical activating networks. In this study, we examined the relationship between cortical (19 EEG sites) and autonomic (SCL) activities recorded simultaneously in 10 normal adults. Two second pre-stimulus EEGs and SCLs were assessed from an habituation paradigm which presented 22 trains of 7 tones in an 'ignore' condition. The mean SCLs of the epochs across subjects showed an initial rise (sensitization) followed by an exponential decline (habituation). Although EEG associated with the tones did not demonstrate such a distinct profile, EEG total power and band powers (beta, alpha and theta) associated with the trains showed a systematic increasing response profile. In the group data the mean SCLs within trains showed a significant correlation with alpha and beta band powers. Finer EEG band analyses indicated that beta 3 at Fz and alpha 2 at Cz showed the strongest separate linear correlations with SCL. beta 3 and alpha 1 at Fz were found to jointly covary with SCL. The findings indicate a substantive relationship between measures of cerebral function and autonomic arousal.

Motor imagery: perception or action?

Motor imagery has been studied using subjective, behavioural and physiological methods and this paper reviews theoretical and practical issues from all three viewpoints. Attempts to measure motor imagery on a subjective scale have met with limited success but alternative methods are proposed. Research on mental practice suggests a number of different processes may be needed to explain the variety and variability of effects obtained. Recent studies of spatial and motor working memory signify the importance of a primarily visuo-spatial component in which actions are consciously represented together with a more properly motoric component which must be activated to generate either images or overt actions. Finally the question of whether motor imagery is primarily perceptual or motoric in character does not have a simple neurophysiological answer due to the highly distributed nature of motor control. Nevertheless some of the key mechanisms serving both spatial and motoric components have been provisionally identified.

Theta power decreases in preparation for voluntary isometric contractions performed with maximal subjective effort

In order to find EEG parameters that can be attributed to movements performed with maximal subjective effort, EEG recordings and force measurements were realized in connection with isometric contractions (IMC). IMC were performed with submaximal and maximal subjective effort. Mean spectral power density within the theta band was found as an indicator for maximal subjective effort. The theta power across the parieto-occipital area decreases from rest through movements performed with submaximal force to movements performed with maximal effort. It is argued that this theta decrease possibly reflects a down-regulation of the posterior attention system in order to minimize the influences of external stimuli during the preparation for voluntary IMC performed with maximal subjective effort.

Mental practice of motor skills used in poststroke rehabilitation has own effects on central nervous activation

In the last years it has been shown that the use of the EMG triggered electrical myostimulation (ETEM) brings good results in poststroke rehabilitation. It has been hypothesized that the relearning effects obtained by means of ETEM are due to the reinstatement of proprioceptive feedback. However, the technique is most powerful if imagination of motor acts (the so called mental practice) is used as an initial part of ETEM. Since mental practice in healthy people leads to central nervous activation processes as well as to an improvement of motor skills, we investigated the effects of mental practice alone on central nervous activity by means of EEG in stroke patients. Twelve left-sided hemiplegic patients who underwent a specific poststroke rehabilitation treatment were requested to perform a simple arm movement sequence. In the following mental practice period the patients were requested to imagine the same sequence without any real movement. EEG background activity was recorded during baseline and imagination periods. After the calculation of z-transformed power values within the alpha and beta-1 band, differences between rest and imagination periods were evaluated for significance. Stroke patients showed significant decreases of alpha as well as beta-1 power during mental practice in comparison to the rest period. These changes are similar to those obtained in healthy subjects. Central alpha power diminished only during imagination of the contralateral arm. This phenomenon as well as the decrease of beta-1 power in central derivation were also obtained during real motor performance and might indicate an activation of the sensorimotor cortex. In accordance with the hypothesis of internal feedback mechanisms, this activation is a necessary prerequisite for motor learning during mental practice. We conclude that mental practice of motor skills might have own effects in poststroke rehabilitation.

Activation processes during mental practice in stroke patients

In healthy subjects, mental practice is known to improve motor performance. It is also known to be accompanied by a higher central nervous activity. Since such effects seem to be desirable for rehabilitation, we investigated the possibility of detecting changes in central nervous activity by means of EEG in stroke patients, and whether these changes were similar to those observed in healthy subjects. 12 left-sided hemiplegic patients who underwent a specific post-stroke rehabilitation treatment were requested to perform a simple arm movement sequence. In the following mental practice period the patients were requested to image the same sequence without any real movement. EEG background activity was recorded during rest and imagination periods. After the calculation of z-transformed power values within the theta, alpha, and beta-1 band, differences between rest and imagination periods were evaluated for their significance. Stroke patients show significant decreases of theta, alpha, as well as beta-1 power during mental practice in comparison to the rest period. These changes are similar to those obtained in healthy subjects. Theta power decreases in central and parietal leads. Central alpha power diminishes only during imagination of the contralateral arm. This phenomenon as well as the decrease of beta-1 power in central derivation were also obtained during real motor performance and might indicate an activation of the sensorimotor cortex. In accordance with the hypothesis of internal feedback mechanisms, this activation is a necessary prerequisite for motor learning during mental practice.

Motor imagination--a model for motor performances?

The effect of training competition (TC) on central nervous activation was investigated in order to examine whether motor imagination could serve as a model for complex motor skills concerning information processing and motor control. EEG was recorded before and immediately after the TC. The mean alpha frequency (MAF) was computed from the EEG power density spectra. A significant increase of MAF was found after the TC. Similar changes were found during motor imagination. Thus, motor imagination seems to be a good model to examine activation processes.