1
|
Greco BJ, Meehan CL, Miller LJ, Shepherdson DJ, Morfeld KA, Andrews J, Baker AM, Carlstead K, Mench JA. Elephant Management in North American Zoos: Environmental Enrichment, Feeding, Exercise, and Training. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152490. [PMID: 27414654 PMCID: PMC4944993 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The management of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in zoos involves a range of practices including feeding, exercise, training, and environmental enrichment. These practices are necessary to meet the elephants’ nutritional, healthcare, and husbandry needs. However, these practices are not standardized, resulting in likely variation among zoos as well as differences in the way they are applied to individual elephants within a zoo. To characterize elephant management in North America, we collected survey data from zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, developed 26 variables, generated population level descriptive statistics, and analyzed them to identify differences attributable to sex and species. Sixty-seven zoos submitted surveys describing the management of 224 elephants and the training experiences of 227 elephants. Asian elephants spent more time managed (defined as interacting directly with staff) than Africans (mean time managed: Asians = 56.9%; Africans = 48.6%; p<0.001), and managed time increased by 20.2% for every year of age for both species. Enrichment, feeding, and exercise programs were evaluated using diversity indices, with mean scores across zoos in the midrange for these measures. There were an average of 7.2 feedings every 24-hour period, with only 1.2 occurring during the nighttime. Feeding schedules were predictable at 47.5% of zoos. We also calculated the relative use of rewarding and aversive techniques employed during training interactions. The population median was seven on a scale from one (representing only aversive stimuli) to nine (representing only rewarding stimuli). The results of our study provide essential information for understanding management variation that could be relevant to welfare. Furthermore, the variables we created have been used in subsequent elephant welfare analyses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian J. Greco
- Department of Animal Science and Center for Animal Welfare, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- AWARE Institute, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Lance J. Miller
- Chicago Zoological Society—Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, Illinois, United States of America
| | | | - Kari A. Morfeld
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Jeff Andrews
- Busch Gardens, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Anne M. Baker
- CBSG North America, Apple Valley, Maine, United States of America
| | | | - Joy A. Mench
- Department of Animal Science and Center for Animal Welfare, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|