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Elsawy BSM, Mahmoud MS, Suarez CE, Alzan HF. Impact of Equine and Camel Piroplasmosis in Egypt: How Much Do We Know about the Current Situation? Pathogens 2023; 12:1318. [PMID: 38003783 PMCID: PMC10675018 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Piroplasmosis is a global tick-borne disease caused by hemoprotozoan parasites, which causes high morbidity and substantial economic losses in farm animals. Equine and camel piroplasmosis causes significant losses worldwide and in Egypt. The multifactorial effects and overall impact of equine and camel piroplasmosis in Egypt remain poorly characterized. However, several Babesia and Theileria spp. as well as potential tick vectors affecting these two species have been identified in the country. Equine and camel piroplasmosis has been reported by all governates in the country. Thus, in this work, we intend to provide a broad depiction of the current approaches used for diagnosis and control and the impact of piroplasmosis on the equine and camel industries in Egypt. We also identified current gaps in knowledge that might help develop future research efforts towards improved intervention and control of equine and camel piroplasmosis. It is important to develop specific diagnostic tools suitable for the early and chronic diagnosis of this disease. Altogether, the current situation warrants the development of large-scale epidemiological studies in order to obtain an accurate estimate for equine and camel piroplasmosis to secure the highly needed food resources in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassma S. M. Elsawy
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Center Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt; (B.S.M.E.); (M.S.M.)
- Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases Research Unit, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Center Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Mona S. Mahmoud
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Center Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt; (B.S.M.E.); (M.S.M.)
- Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases Research Unit, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Center Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Carlos E. Suarez
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA 99164, USA;
| | - Heba F. Alzan
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Center Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt; (B.S.M.E.); (M.S.M.)
- Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases Research Unit, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Center Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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Mahdy OA, Nassar AM, Elsawy BSM, Alzan HF, Kandil OM, Mahmoud MS, Suarez CE. Cross-sectional analysis of Piroplasma species-infecting camel ( Camelus dromedaries) in Egypt using a multipronged molecular diagnostic approach. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1178511. [PMID: 37187929 PMCID: PMC10175621 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1178511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Camel piroplasmosis is a tick-borne disease (TBD) caused by hemoprotozoan parasites. Hereby, we describe a cross-sectional study aiming at identifying Piroplasma spp.-infecting camels in Egypt using a multipronged molecular diagnostic approach. A total of 531 blood samples from camels (Camelus dromedarius) were collected from slaughterhouses at different governorates in Egypt for analysis during the period from June 2018 to May 2019. Piroplasma spp. was identified using microscopical examination and several different and sequential polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays targeting the 18S rRNA genes. The overall prevalence of Piroplasma spp. in microscopical and molecular analyses in the samples was 11% (58/531) and 38% (203/531), respectively. Further discriminative multiplex PCR analysis targeting the 18S rRNA gene applied on all Piroplasma spp.-positive samples allowed the detection of Theileria equi (41%), Babesia caballi (5.4%), Babesia bigemina (0.5%), and Babesia bovis (4%). Additionally, the blast analysis of nested (n) PCR, targeting the V4 region, amplicon sequences resulted in the identification of B. vulpes (22%), Babesia sp. (9%), and Theileria sp. (3%). Overall, the results of this study confirmed the high prevalence of TBDs caused by several types of piroplasm hemoparasites in camel and suggests the need for future interventions aimed at improving the control of these potentially debilitating diseases that may be t-hreatening important economic resources and food security in Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olfat A. Mahdy
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
- Olfat A. Mahdy
| | - Ahmed M. Nassar
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Bassma S. M. Elsawy
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Institute, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
- Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases Research Unit, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
| | - Heba F. Alzan
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Institute, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
- Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases Research Unit, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Omnia M. Kandil
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Institute, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mona S. Mahmoud
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, Veterinary Institute, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
- Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases Research Unit, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
| | - Carlos E. Suarez
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
- Department of Agricultural - Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States
- *Correspondence: Carlos E. Suarez
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Mirahmadi H, Ghaderi A, Barani S, Alijani E, Mehravaran A, Shafiei R. Prevalence of camel babesiosis in southeast of Iran. Vet Med Sci 2021; 8:343-348. [PMID: 34800356 PMCID: PMC8788886 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesiosis is a globally distributed zoonotic parasitic disease in a broad range of vertebrates with great importance in the veterinary field. The standard diagnostic test for Babesiosis in animals is microscopic identification of the parasite in a venous blood smear stained with Giemsa combined with assessment of clinical manifestations throughout the acute phase of the disease. The present study was planned to determine the presence of Babesia species in camels from the southeastern regions of Iran. A total of 140 blood samples of camels were randomly collected in four selected cities including Qaen, Nehbandan, Iranshahr, and Zahedan from March to August 2019. Blood smears of each case were also examined by the Giemsa staining method and extracted DNA samples were subjected to internal transcribed spacers (ITS1) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. The prevalence rates using microscopically and molecular examinations were 10% and 19.28%, respectively. The prevalence rates significantly vary between the selected regions (p = 0.003). PCR technique showed higher sensitivity than microscopy. We found that all infected camels were positive for Babesia caballi. The rate of infection with Babesia among the camel in Zahedan is remarkable. Early diagnosis and early treatment can prevent further spread of the disease in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Mirahmadi
- Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Research Institute of Cellular and Molecular Sciences in Infectious Diseases, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran.,Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Ali Ghaderi
- Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Research Institute of Cellular and Molecular Sciences in Infectious Diseases, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran.,Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Shaghik Barani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Alijani
- Clinical Immunology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Ahmad Mehravaran
- Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Research Institute of Cellular and Molecular Sciences in Infectious Diseases, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran.,Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Reza Shafiei
- Vector-Borne Diseases Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran
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A'aiz NN, Ayyez HN, Neamah AJ. Molecular Assay Proves the Presence of Theileria annulata Infection in Camels in Al-Diwaniyah Province, Iraq. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2021; 16:289-294. [PMID: 34557244 PMCID: PMC8418665 DOI: 10.18502/ijpa.v16i2.6317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Background: Theileria camelensis and T. dromedarii are parasitic protozoans reported by several studies as specific species that infect the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius). However, other findings casted significant doubts on the true identity of the causative species of theileriosis in camels. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate of T. camelensis and T. dromedarii in one humped camels in Iraq during Apr-Oct 2017. Methods: Blood samples for DNA extraction were obtained from 181 slaughtered camels. Molecular investigation was performed following the amplification of 18S rRNA gene by conventional PCR technique. DNA sequencing was then utilized only for the positive samples to confirm the infection with the Theileria species. Results: Nine (4.97%) out of 181 examined samples showed a positive result to infection with Theileria spp., and all these appeared as a T. annulata when subjected to DNA amplification and sequencing techniques. There was a complete absence of any new sequence outside the known species. Conclusion: Most of Theileria infection in camels in the study area is caused by T. annulata and no other causative agents like T. camelensis or T. dromedarii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noaman N A'aiz
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq
| | - Hayder N Ayyez
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq
| | - Ahmed J Neamah
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq
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El Tigani-Asil ETA, Blanda V, Abdelwahab GE, Hammadi ZMA, Habeeba S, Khalafalla AI, Alhosani MA, La Russa F, Migliore S, Torina A, Loria GR, Al Muhairi SS. Molecular Investigation on Tick-Borne Hemoparasites and Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels ( Camelusdromedarius) in Al Dhafra Region of Abu Dhabi, UAE. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11030666. [PMID: 33801532 PMCID: PMC8000914 DOI: 10.3390/ani11030666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Camels represent an important resource for inhabitants of the most arid regions of the world and their survival is mainly related to environment conditions including the risk of parasitic diseases, which may represent a significant cause of losses in livestock production of these areas. Camels may be parasitized by several hematophagous arthropods, which can be vectors of several diseases including zoonosis. This study aimed to investigate in dromedary camels and their ticks the importance of tick-borne hemoparasites that might be responsible for a recent and obscure morbidity of camels in Al Dhafra region of Abu Dhabi, UAE. Blood samples and ticks from 93 naturally infected camels belonging to 36 herds, affected by variable acute clinical syndromes lasting from 3 to 5 days, were analyzed through molecular techniques for specific DNA presence of different blood pathogens: Anaplasmamarginale/Anaplasmaovis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Coxiella burnetii,Babesia spp., and Theileria spp. DNA. All the 72 ticks collected belonged to the Hyalomma dromedarii species and were negative for blood pathogens. n = 15 camels (16.1%) were found positive to the following tick-borne hemoparasites: A. phagocytophilum 11 (11.8%), Coxiella burnetii 3 (3.2%), and Babesia/Theileria spp. 2 (2.1%). One singular camel showed coinfection of C. burnetii and A. phagocytophiulm. Genetic profile of C. burnetii showed a high phylogenetic relatedness to European, Asian and African C. burnetii strains. This is the first laboratory investigation on tick-borne pathogens in camels in UAE, and the first report of A. phagocytophilum and C. burnetii. Moreover, since the detected pathogens are recognized pathogens for humans, this study highlights the zoonotic risk for humans working in camel husbandry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valeria Blanda
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | - Shameem Habeeba
- Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi Emirate 52150, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Mohamed Ali Alhosani
- Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi Emirate 52150, United Arab Emirates
| | - Francesco La Russa
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy
| | - Sergio Migliore
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessandra Torina
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy
| | - Guido Ruggero Loria
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy
| | - Salama Suhail Al Muhairi
- Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi Emirate 52150, United Arab Emirates
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Alreshidi MM, Veettil VN, Noumi E, Campo RD, Snoussi M. Description of microbial diversity associated with ticks Hyalomma dromedarii (Acari: Ixodidae) isolated from camels in Hail region (Saudi Arabia) using massive sequencing of 16S rDNA. Bioinformation 2020; 16:602-610. [PMID: 33214748 PMCID: PMC7649017 DOI: 10.6026/97320630016602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks are blood feeder able to transmit a wide diversity of microbes including pathogens. Therefore, it is of our interest to detect the diversity of microorganisms residing within
ticks using massive sequencing of 16S rDNA. In this study, 200 adult ticks were collected from healthy camels in two localities from Hail province (Saudi Arabia). The analysis showed
high microbial diversity dominated by the two domains (Archaea and Bacteria) associated with Hyalomma dromedarii from both regions. Proteobacteria (61.3%) and Firmicutes (31.2%)
dominated the ticks from the Al Khotha region. While, the microbiome of ticks from the Al Gayed region was dominated by Proteobacteria (81.2%) and Firmicutes (9.2%). Twenty-three
families were identified in the DNA-pool from the Al Gayed region, and was dominated by Pseudomonadaceae (45.37%), and Marinobacteraceae (14.39%) families. Francisellaceae (46%),
Staphylococcaceae (24.26%) dominated the microbiome of the ticks collected from Al Gayed region. Thus, the genera Pseudomonas, Francisella, Proteus, Marinobacter, Glutamicibacter,
Pedobacter, and Staphylococcus are largely distributed in the two identified microbiomes. This study concluded that ticks collected from the studied localities contained a wide range
of microbial communities. These data have a great veterinary and medical importance in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mousa M Alreshidi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Ha'il, P.O. 2440, University of Ha'il City 2440, Saudi Arabia
| | - Vajid N Veettil
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Ha'il, P.O. 2440, University of Ha'il City 2440, Saudi Arabia
| | - Emira Noumi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Ha'il, P.O. 2440, University of Ha'il City 2440, Saudi Arabia.,Laboratory of Bioressources: Integrative Biology and Recovery, High Institute of Biotechnology-University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia
| | - Rosa Del Campo
- Servicio de Microbiologia, Instituto Ramon y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramon y Cajal, Carretera de Colmenar, Km 9,1, 28034 - Madrid. Spain
| | - Mejdi Snoussi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Ha'il, P.O. 2440, University of Ha'il City 2440, Saudi Arabia.,Laboratory of Genetics, Biodiversity and Valorization of Bio-resources, Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Monastir, University of Monastir, Avenue Tahar Haddad, 5000 Monastir, Tunisia
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Youssef SY, Yasien S, Mousa WMA, Nasr SM, El-Kelesh EAM, Mahran KM, Abd-El-Rahman AH. Vector identification and clinical, hematological, biochemical, and parasitological characteristics of camel (Camelus dromedarius) theileriosis in Egypt. Trop Anim Health Prod 2015; 47:649-56. [PMID: 25677167 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-015-0771-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of the present study were to identify a possible tick vector and to determine the prevalence of camel theileriosis in Egypt using blood smears stained with Giemsa's stain and PCR assay. Hemogram and serum biochemical constituents were also investigated. A total of 243 camels, aged 3-5 years, were examined. The results revealed that 75 (30.86 %) camels were infected with Theileria spp. of Giemsa-stained blood smears. Hyalomma dromedarii was identified as the carrier tick of Theileria spp. Multinucleated sporoblast and free sporozoite were observed in the salivary gland smears from collecting ticks. PCR result revealed that Theileria annulata was the most abundant in camels (60 %) followed by Theileria spp. (10 %). Macrocytic hypochromic anemia was recorded in the infected camels with T. annulata. Leukocytosis, neutrophilia, eosinophilia, and lymphopenia were also observed in the infected group. In the serum of infected camels, total proteins, albumin, β-globulin, and A/G ratio were significantly decreased (P < 0.05); however, total globulins and α- and γ-globulins were markedly increased (P < 0.05). The activity of aspartate aminotransferase and the levels of glucose, creatinine, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were markedly increased (P < 0.05) in the infected group. In contrast, triglycerides and total cholesterol concentrations were significant decreased (P < 0.001) in the infected group. In conclusion, a high prevalence of camel theileriosis was recorded in apparently healthy camels. H. dromedarii commonly infested these camels and were found infected with the transmissible forms of Theileria, indicating a role in transmission. Camels infected with T. annulata induced alterations in the cellular and biochemical constituents.
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Sloboda M, Jirků M, Lukešová D, Qablan M, Batsukh Z, Fiala I, Hořín P, Modrý D, Lukeš J. A survey for piroplasmids in horses and Bactrian camels in North-Eastern Mongolia. Vet Parasitol 2011; 179:246-9. [PMID: 21402446 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2010] [Revised: 01/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Equine piroplasmosis caused by Babesia caballi and Theileria equi is widespread in Asia. The presence of these haemozoans in Mongolia was previously confirmed in domestic as well as in reintroduced Przewalski horses in which they cause significant pathology. The data on occurrence of piroplasms from Bactrian camels in Asia is lacking. A total of 192 horses, 70 Bactrian camels, and additional 16 shepherd dogs from the Hentiy province were included in our study. No clinical signs typical for piroplasmid infection were observed during the field survey. Microscopic examination revealed the presence of T. equi in blood smears from 67% of examined horses, with camels and dogs being negative. A two step PCR approach was used to detect piroplasms in peripheral blood. In the first "catch all" PCR reaction, amplification of the 496 bp-long fragment of the SSU rRNA gene enabled the detection of Babesia and Theileria spp. Second round multiplex PCR reaction used for species discrimination allowed the amplification of T. equi- and B. caballi-specific 340 bp and 650 bp-long regions of the SSU rRNA, respectively. This assay detected T. equi in 92.7% of horses, while the infections with B. caballi and dual infections were rare. In both PCR setups, camels and dogs were negative indicating that in the studied region, these hosts do not share piroplasms with horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Sloboda
- Department of Parasitology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Palackého 1-3, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic.
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van Straten M, Jongejan F. Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting the Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) in the Sinai, Egypt with a note on the acaricidal efficacy of ivermectin. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 1993; 17:605-616. [PMID: 7628237 DOI: 10.1007/bf00053490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In this study, tick burdens on camels (Camelus dromedarius) were determined in the vicinity of the St. Catherine monastery, Sinai, Egypt. In total 2,545 ticks (1,491 adults and 1,054 nymphs) were collected and identified. Mean tick burdens were relatively heavy and the range in number of ticks per camel was very broad (6-173). Hyalomma dromedarii was the predominant tick species and accounted for 95.6% of the adult ticks. Other ticks found were H. marginatum subspp. and H. anatolicum excavatum. All nymphs collected were Hyalomma spp. In addition, the effect of ivermectin (Ivomec MSD AGVET) on tick burdens, when given subcutaneously at 0.2 mg/kg-1, was evaluated in nine camels in the date-palm plantation of Kibbutz Yahel in the Arava valley, Israel. Initial tick burdens on these camels (half-body tick counts) ranged from 20-105 ticks per camel. Seven camels from the same herd with half-body tick counts ranging from 40-107 ticks per camel were not treated and served as a control group. Ivermectin was not effective against Hyalomma tick infestation in camels under these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M van Straten
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
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