1
|
Oesch F, Honarvar N, Fabian E, Berger FI, Landsiedel R. N-vinyl compounds: studies on metabolism, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:3143-3159. [PMID: 34091723 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03081-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Several N-vinyl compounds are produced in high volumes and are widely employed in the production of copolymers and polymers used in chemical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industry. Hence, information on their genotoxicity and carcinogenicity is requisite. This review presents hitherto available information on the carcinogenicity and genotoxicity of N-vinyl compounds as well as their metabolism potentially generating genotoxic and carcinogenic derivatives. The genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of the investigated N-vinyl compounds vary widely from no observed carcinogenicity tested in lifetime bioassays in two rodent species (up to very high doses) to carcinogenicity in rats at very low doses in the absence of apparent genotoxicity. Despite of the presence of the vinyl group potentially metabolized to an epoxide followed by covalent binding to DNA, genotoxicity was observed for only one of the considered N-vinyl compounds, N-vinyl carbazole. Carcinogenicity was investigated only for two, of which one, N-vinyl pyrrolidone was carcinogenic (but not genotoxic) and ranitidine was neither carcinogenic nor genotoxic. As far as investigated, neither a metabolically formed epoxide nor a therefrom derived diol has been reported for any of the considered N-vinyl compounds. It is concluded that the information collected in this review will further the understanding of the carcinogenic potentials of N-vinyl compounds and may eventually allow approaching their prediction and prevention. A suggestion how to prevent genotoxicity in designing of N-vinyl compounds is presented. However, the available information is scarce and further research especially on the metabolism of N-vinyl compounds is highly desirable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Oesch
- Oesch-Tox Toxicological Consulting and Expert Opinions, 55263, Ingelheim, Germany
| | - N Honarvar
- BASF SE, Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, 67056, Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany
| | - E Fabian
- BASF SE, Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, 67056, Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany
| | - F I Berger
- Regulatory Toxicology of Chemicals, BASF SE, 67056, Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany
| | - Robert Landsiedel
- BASF SE, Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, 67056, Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gao Z, Karfunkle M, Ye W, Marzan TA, Yang J, Lex T, Sommers C, Rodriguez JD, Han X, Florian J, Strauss DG, Keire DA. In Vitro Analysis of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Formation From Ranitidine Under Simulated Gastrointestinal Conditions. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4:e2118253. [PMID: 34181009 PMCID: PMC8239951 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.18253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Importance A publication reported that N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a probable human carcinogen, was formed when ranitidine and nitrite were added to simulated gastric fluid. However, the nitrite concentrations used were greater than the range detected in acidic gastric fluid in prior clinical studies. Objective To characterize NDMA formation following the addition of ranitidine to simulated gastric fluid using combinations of fluid volume, pH levels, and nitrite concentrations, including physiologic levels. Design, Setting, and Participants One 150-mg ranitidine tablet was added to 50 or 250 mL of simulated gastric fluid with a range of nitrite concentrations from the upper range of physiologic (100 μmol/L) to higher concentrations (10 000 μmol/L) with a range of pH levels. NDMA amounts were assessed with a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Main Outcomes and Measures NDMA detected in simulated gastric fluid 2 hours after adding ranitidine. Results At a supraphysiologic nitrite concentration (ie, 10 000 μmol/L), the mean (SD) amount of NDMA detected in 50 mL simulated gastric fluid 2 hours after adding ranitidine increased from 222 (12) ng at pH 5 to 11 822 (434) ng at pH 1.2. Subsequent experiments with 50 mL of simulated gastric fluid at pH 1.2 with no added nitrite detected a mean (SD) of 22 (2) ng of NDMA, which is the background amount present in the ranitidine tablets. Similarly, at the upper range of physiologic nitrite (ie, 100 μmol/L) or at nitrite concentrations as much as 50-fold greater (1000 or 5000 μmol/L) only background mean (SD) amounts of NDMA were observed (21 [3] ng, 24 [2] ng, or 24 [3] ng, respectively). With 250 mL of simulated gastric fluid, no NDMA was detected at the upper physiologic range (100 μmol/L) or 10-fold physiologic (1000 μmol/L) nitrite concentrations, while NDMA was detected (mean [SD] level, 7353 [183] ng) at a 50-fold physiologic nitrite concentration (5000 μmol/L). Conclusions and Relevance In this in vitro study of ranitidine tablets added to simulated gastric fluid with different nitrite concentrations, ranitidine conversion to NDMA was not detected until nitrite was 5000 μmol/L, which is 50-fold greater than the upper range of physiologic gastric nitrite concentrations at acidic pH. These findings suggest that ranitidine is not converted to NDMA in gastric fluid at physiologic conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zongming Gao
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Michael Karfunkle
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Wei Ye
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Tim Andres Marzan
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Jingyue Yang
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Timothy Lex
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Cynthia Sommers
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Jason D. Rodriguez
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Xiaomei Han
- Division of Applied Regulatory Science, Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration. Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Jeffry Florian
- Division of Applied Regulatory Science, Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration. Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - David G. Strauss
- Division of Applied Regulatory Science, Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration. Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - David A. Keire
- Division of Complex Drug Analysis and Division of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Office of Testing and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, St Louis, Missouri
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Brambilla G, Mattioli F, Martelli A. Genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of gastrointestinal drugs. Mutagenesis 2010; 25:315-26. [PMID: 20478972 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geq025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This review provides a compendium of retrievable results of genotoxicity and carcinogenicity assays performed on marketed gastrointestinal drugs. Of the 71 drugs considered, 38 (53.5%) do not have retrievable data, whereas the other 33 (46.5%) have at least one genotoxicity or carcinogenicity test result. Of these 33 drugs, 15 tested positive in at least one genotoxicity assay and 13 in at least one carcinogenicity assay; 8 of them gave a positive response in both at least one genotoxicity assay and at least one carcinogenicity assay. Concerning the predictivity of genetic toxicology findings for the result(s) of long-term carcinogenesis assays, of 21 drugs with both genotoxicity and carcinogenicity data: 6 (28.6%) are neither genotoxic nor carcinogenic, 2 (9.5%) tested positive in at least one genotoxicity assay but were non-carcinogenic, 5 (23.8%) tested negative in genotoxicity assays but were carcinogenic and 8 (38.1%) gave a positive response in at least one genotoxicity assay and in at least one carcinogenicity assay. Only 12 (16.9%) of the 71 drugs examined have all data required by present guidelines for testing of pharmaceuticals, but a large fraction of them were developed and marketed prior the present regulatory climate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Brambilla
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Brambilla G, Martelli A. Genotoxic and carcinogenic risk to humans of drug-nitrite interaction products. Mutat Res 2006; 635:17-52. [PMID: 17157055 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2006.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2006] [Revised: 09/18/2006] [Accepted: 09/25/2006] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The large majority of N-nitroso compounds (NOC) have been found to produce genotoxic effects and to cause tumor development in laboratory animals; four NOC have been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as probably and another 15 as possibly carcinogenic to humans. A considerable fraction of drugs are theoretically nitrosatable due to the presence of amine, amide or other groups which by reacting with nitrite in the gastric environment, or even in other sites, can give rise to the formation of NOC, and in some cases other reactive species. This review provides a synthesis of information on the chemistry of NOC formation, the carcinogenic activity of NOC in animals and humans and the inhibitors of nitrosation reactions. It contains information on the drugs which have been tested for the formation of NOC by reaction with nitrite and the genotoxic-carcinogenic effects of their nitrosation products. In an extensive search we have found that 182 drugs, representing a wide variety of chemical structures and therapeutic activities, were examined in various experimental conditions for their ability to react with nitrite, and 173 (95%) of them were found to form NOC or other reactive species. Moreover, 136 drugs were examined in short-term genotoxicity tests and/or in long-term carcinogenesis assays, either in combination with nitrite or using their nitrosation product, in order to establish whether they produce genotoxic and carcinogenic effects; 112 (82.4%) of them have been found to give at least one positive response. The problem of endogenous drug nitrosation is largely unrecognized. Only a small fraction of theoretically nitrosatable drugs have been examined for the possible formation of genotoxic-carcinogenic NOC, guidelines for genotoxicity testing of pharmaceuticals do not indicate the need of performing the appropriate tests, and patients are not informed that the drug-nitrite interaction and the consequent risk can be reduced to a large extent by consuming the nitrosatable drug with ascorbic acid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Brambilla
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV, 2, I-16132 Genoa, Italy.
| | - Antonietta Martelli
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV, 2, I-16132 Genoa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
The genotoxicity of ranitidine, widely used in the therapy of peptic ulcers, and of nitrosated ranitidine was examined in test systems with the bacteria Salmonella typhimurium for gene mutations, and with the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae D7 for reverse mutations and gene conversion. Under the experimental conditions applied, ranitidine was negative in both systems, while the product obtained by nitrosation in vitro was mutagenic for Salmonella strains TA100 and TA98 with and without metabolic activation. The largest increase of his+ revertants, 3 times greater than the control, was obtained in strain TA100 in the absence of S9 fraction. Nitrosated ranitidine was also recombinogenic for the yeast S. cerevisiae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Franekić
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Yugoslavia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hincks JR, Coulombe RA. Gravity-flow alkaline elution: a method to rapidly detect carcinogen-induced DNA strand breaks. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1986; 137:1006-14. [PMID: 3729946 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(86)90325-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
A rapid, sensitive and reliable gravity-flow alkaline elution assay was developed to detect DNA strand breaks in cultured Madin-Darby bovine kidney epithelial cells. Elution was completed within 2 h without the use of pumps. The system was validated by exposing the cells to X-irradiation (25-1500 R) which resulted in a significant dose dependent response (p less than 0.05) with excellent correlation (r-0.93). The assay reliably detected the DNA damage of seven genotoxic carcinogens. In general, the measured DNA damage was dose dependent and significantly different from control values for all genotoxic carcinogens tested. Six non-genotoxic compounds were tested and showed no detectable DNA damage.
Collapse
|
9
|
Brambilla G, Cajelli E, Finollo R, Maura A, Pino A, Robbiano L. Formation of DNA-damaging nitroso compounds by interaction of drugs with nitrite. A preliminary screening for detecting potentially hazardous drugs. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1985; 15:1-24. [PMID: 3981659 DOI: 10.1080/15287398509530632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fifty-seven theoretically nitrosatable widely used drugs that are commonly administered orally have been screened to determine the formation of nitroso compounds by drug-nitrite interaction and to evaluate the genotoxicity of their nitrosation products against Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, measured as DNA-damaging potency by the alkaline elution technique. The drug (0.1 mmol) was reacted with NaNO2 (0.4 mmol) at pH 3-3.5 for 1 h. Nitroso compounds were present in varying yield in the nitrosation mixture of 47 drugs. Twenty-two drugs formed direct-acting nitroso compounds capable of producing DNA fragmentation, i.e., a statistically significant (p less than 0.01) increase in the elution rate of CHO cell DNA. On a molar basis, their DNA-damaging potency varied over a 570-fold range, with 12 exhibiting greater potency than that of N-nitroso-N-methylurea.
Collapse
|