Prostaglandin E2 and leukotriene C4 levels following different reperfusion periods in rat brain correlated with morphological changes

The effect of head cooling on the physiological responses and resultant neural damage to global hemispheric hypoxic ischemia in prostaglandin E2 treated rats

The study determined if head cooling would reduce the augmented increase in neural damage of global hemispheric hypoxic ischemia (GHHI) of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) treated rats. Halothane anesthetized, male, Long-Evans rats (9-11 weeks of age), kept at 37 degrees C colonically (Tc) had (a) systemic core (colonic, Tc), temporalis muscle temperatures ipsilateral (Tipsi) and contralateral (Tcontra) to the side of right common carotid artery (RCCA) ligation, (b) mean arterial pressure (MAP) and (c) ipsilateral cortical capillary blood flow (CBF) measured simultaneously after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection (2.5 microl) of sterile (SS) or 25 ng PGE2 then GHHI (35 min of 12% O2, balance N2 after RCCA ligation) followed by a 10 min normoxic recovery period. Head cooling (10 degrees C cool air over the head region) occurred in one PGE2 subgroup 10 min post-injection until the end of the hypoxic period. Icv-PGE2 treated rats, maintained at 37 degrees C (no head cooling) had increased Tc, Tipsi, Tcontras and MAPs from respective pre-injection control values; this group showed increased ipsilateral hemispheric neural damage to GHHI assessed 7 days later, compared to i.c.v.-SS treated group given the same GHHI insult. Cooling the head region of rats previously given PGE2 decreased Tipsi and Tcontras from respective control temperatures but did not change MAP or CBF from respective pre-injection values. Hemispheric damage of the PGE2 cooled group was reduced from damage of non-cooled PGE2 treated rats and was similar to i.c.v.-SS treated rats. Results demonstrate that the heightened core temperatures induced by PGE2 administration (major endogenous mediator of bacterial fever induction) play a significant role in escalating the neural damage to global ischemia.

Intracerebroventricular prostaglandin administration increases the neural damage evoked by global hemispheric hypoxic ischemia

This study was designed to determine if central (intracerebroventricular, i.c.v.) administration of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2, mediator of core temperature elevation following exogenous or endogenous pyrogen administration) worsens the neural damage of anesthetized rats to global hemispheric hypoxic-ischemia (GHHI) from damage seen in normothermic, i.c.v. saline control groups. The first study (no GHHI) showed that 10 or 50 ng PGE2 given i.c.v. to groups of anesthetized Long-Evans rats evoked dose-related increases in colonic (systemic core) temperature but no neural damage. In the second study anesthetized rats were given an i.c.v. injection of sterile saline or PGE2 plus GHHI (ligation of the right common carotid artery plus 35 min of 12% O2) at the peak of the temperature response. Thermal response indices (TRI, degrees C x min), determined from brain (temporalis muscle, ipsilateral and contralateral to ligation) and core (colonic) temperatures, showed significant increases in the 50-ng PGE2 group compared to the TRIs of the 10-ng PGE2 or saline control group. The 50-ng PGE2, GHHI group had a higher mortality rate and showed greater ipsilateral hemispheric neural damage than the saline-treated group given the same insult, especially due to increased damage to the cortex. The results show that i.c.v. PGE2 administration significantly increases the neural damage caused by GHHI, possibly due to the associated rise in core temperature.

Regional generation of leukotriene C4 after experimental brain injury in anesthetized rats

Regional concentrations of leukotriene C4 and extravasation of Evans blue were measured after lateral fluid-percussion brain injury in rats. Tissue levels of LTC4 were elevated in the injured cortex at 10 min, 30 min, and 1 h after injury; these levels returned to normal by 2 h after injury. Increases in the levels of LTC4 were also observed in the ipsilateral hippocampus after brain injury, and these elevations persisted for 2 h after injury. No significant increase in levels of LTC4 was observed in the contralateral cortex at any time after injury. A substantial extravasation of Evans blue was observed only in the ipsilateral cortex and hippocampus at 3 h and 6 h after brain injury. Although a temporal association between LTC4 and blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown is suggested by these data, no cause-and-effect relationship has been addressed in this study. However, it is possible that, as is true for cerebral ischemia, LTC4 may play a role as a mediator in the BBB breakdown associated with fluid-percussion brain injury in rats.

Protective effect of the 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor AA-861 on cerebral edema after transient ischemia

This study examined the effect of AA-861, a specific 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, on brain levels of leukotriene C4 (LTC4) and correlated any changes with changes in edema formation and cerebral blood flow (CBF) after transient ischemia in gerbils. Brain levels of LTC4 were observed to be increased at 1, 2, and 6 hours of reperfusion following 20 minutes of occlusion. At 2 hours of reperfusion, a pretreatment dose of 1000 mg/kg of AA-861 was required to inhibit more than 90% of the reperfusion-induced increases in brain LTC4. At this dose, inhibition of LTC4 production was observed at 2 and 6 hours of reperfusion. The specific gravity of both the cortex and subcortex was decreased at 6 hours of reperfusion after 20 minutes of occlusion. At 2 hours of reperfusion, no significant difference was observed in the specific gravity of the cortex and subcortex regions of gerbils pretreated with AA-861 or with vehicle, but at 6 hours of reperfusion significant positive differences were observed. Cerebral blood flow decreased to approximately 10% of preocclusion values during occlusion and returned to near-preocclusion values after 10 minutes of reperfusion. No significant differences were observed in regional CBF in the AA-861- and vehicle-pretreated gerbils during reperfusion. These findings indicate that LTC4 production after transient cerebral ischemia may be an important contributor to the development of cerebral edema and that CBF does not mediate the LTC4-involved development of edema.

Eicosanoid synthesis by warm- and cold-acclimated American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) brain

Previous studies in bullfrogs have demonstrated the presence of leukotriene (LT)C4 binding sites in the brain. However, synthesis of eicosanoids by brain tissue has not been examined. Because prostaglandin (PG) synthesis differs in warm- and cold-acclimated bullfrog lung tissue, this study compared the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes in brains from warm-(22 degrees C) and cold-acclimated (5 degrees C) animals. Initial experiments determined that leukotriene and prostaglandin production rates were greatest during the initial 30 min time period. Therefore, tissues were incubated in Munsick's solution and gassed with 95% O2, 5% CO2 for 30 min. Media were analyzed by radioimmunoassay for LTC4, LTB4, PGE2, PGF2 alpha, TXB2, and 6-keto PGF1 alpha. In warm-acclimated bullfrog brains, production was as follows: LTC4 > PGE2 > 6-keto PGF1 alpha, thromboxane (TX)B2, LTB4, and PGF2 alpha. Brain tissues from cold-acclimated animals incubated at 22 degrees C produced significantly greater quantities of PGE2 and 6-keto PGF1 alpha than did brains from warm-acclimated animals. Stimulation of TXB2 levels was observed when the animal was stunned with a blow to the head prior to decapitation. Indomethacin, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, decreased prostaglandin but not leukotriene synthesis. Epinephrine (4 x 10(-8) M), the amphibian sympathetic postganglionic neurotransmitter, stimulated leukotriene synthesis by brains from warm-acclimated bullfrogs, and the effect was blocked with the 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor MK-886 (5 x 10(-5) M). These results clearly indicate that the bullfrog brain synthesized both leukotrienes and prostaglandins. Further studies are necessary to determine their function in the amphibian central nervous system.