Meat as a Pharmakon: An Exploration of the Biosocial Complexities of Meat Consumption

An overview of drivers and emotions of meat consumption

Emotions are present in almost everything we do, including meat procurement, preparation and consumption. This paper examines the main drivers of this consumption, including sensory and hedonic properties, physiological needs, historical reasons and habits, social influence, ethical motives, practical aspects and other determinants, exploring the meat-related emotions as both an outcome of consumption and as consumption drivers. Emotions are affected by multiple factors relating to the context, the information provided, and the type of product. Positive emotions such as pleasure, satisfaction, proudness and joyfulness have been described in relation to meat, as well as some neutral or negative ones. To enhance positive emotions and increase meat liking, it is essential to improve animal welfare and promote a more sustainable production, focusing on nutritional and sensory quality and providing consumers with reliable information.

Game changers for meat and masculinity? Male athletes' perspectives on mixed and plant-based diets

The dietary choices of male athletes are increasingly a topic of moral and nutritional debate. Though it has long been a consensus that athletes require animal products to advance their athletic goals, this understanding is now challenged in academic and popular sources based on nutritional evidence and concern about the environmental impacts of animal products. In order to better understand how (semi-)professional male athletes perceive plant-based diets and diets containing animal products, thirteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with male athletes competing nationally and internationally, including mixed and plant-based eaters. Interviews were analysed through reflexive thematic analysis, in line with a critical, qualitative research methodology. Justifications for meat, situated knowledge and masculinity were used as theoretical lenses. Our analysis shows how athletes reproduce nutritional claims about the necessity of protein for athletes, but disagree on the suitability of plant-based sources. This nutritional discourse derives from a broad range of sources, including professional nutritionists, friends, online influencers, and media. Second, when explaining their own food practices, food being 'nice' and 'normal' - common justifications for meat as evidenced in the 4N theory - often supersede necessity. Embedding these views in their everyday lives as athletes shows that food environments and shared eating practices fortify a mixed diet as normal, and plant-based diets as anomalous. It further shows how the view of meat being normal is subject to shifting masculinity norms. Interviewees reject meat eating as normal and masculine for men, while male athletes who show dedication, constraint, and knowledge in a plant-based diet are viewed positively. As role models for diet and masculinity, this has implications for a potential role of athletes in a societal transition towards lower consumption of animal products.

Animal board invited review: Animal source foods in healthy, sustainable, and ethical diets - An argument against drastic limitation of livestock in the food system

Animal source foods are evolutionarily appropriate foods for humans. It is therefore remarkable that they are now presented by some as unhealthy, unsustainable, and unethical, particularly in the urban West. The benefits of consuming them are nonetheless substantial, as they offer a wide spectrum of nutrients that are needed for cell and tissue development, function, and survival. They play a role in proper physical and cognitive development of infants, children, and adolescents, and help promote maintenance of physical function with ageing. While high-red meat consumption in the West is associated with several forms of chronic disease, these associations remain uncertain in other cultural contexts or when consumption is part of wholesome diets. Besides health concerns, there is also widespread anxiety about the environmental impacts of animal source foods. Although several production methods are detrimental (intensive cropping for feed, overgrazing, deforestation, water pollution, etc.) and require substantial mitigation, damaging impacts are not intrinsic to animal husbandry. When well-managed, livestock farming contributes to ecosystem management and soil health, while delivering high-quality foodstuffs through the upcycling of resources that are otherwise non-suitable for food production, making use of marginal land and inedible materials (forage, by-products, etc.), integrating livestock and crop farming where possible has the potential to benefit plant food production through enhanced nutrient recycling, while minimising external input needs such as fertilisers and pesticides. Moreover, the impacts on land use, water wastage, and greenhouse gas emissions are highly contextual, and their estimation is often erroneous due to a reductionist use of metrics. Similarly, whether animal husbandry is ethical or not depends on practical specificities, not on the fact that animals are involved. Such discussions also need to factor in that animal husbandry plays an important role in culture, societal well-being, food security, and the provision of livelihoods. We seize this opportunity to argue for less preconceived assumptions about alleged effects of animal source foods on the health of the planet and the humans and animals involved, for less top-down planning based on isolated metrics or (Western) technocratic perspectives, and for more holistic and circumstantial approaches to the food system.

Rabbit meat: valuable nutrition or too-cute-to-eat?

Rabbit meat is a component of traditional diets, often incorporated into iconic dishes of regional cuisine. Its consumption can be traced back to the ancient civilisations of the Mediterranean and beyond, well into the Palaeolithic era. Even though it has been representing considerable nutritional and cultural value for millennia, a decline in consumption is now noticeable. Specific categorial dynamics are at play, related to the various superimposed roles of rabbits as livestock, game, pests, laboratory animals and pets. Their perceived cuteness in particular can lead to emotional responses that are hard to reconcile with the sensitivities of the post-domestic paradigm. Such effects compromise the acceptability of rabbit meat in contemporary Western societies that are typified by problematic human-animal interactions and a disconnect from the food chain. Young and urban populations in particular now seem to have difficulties facing the notion that food production requires the killing of animals. As a result, a traditional food source risks becoming irrelevant despite its high nutritional value and potential for sustainable meat production, due to reasons that are emotive rather than rational.

Rabbit meat: valuable nutrition or too-cute-to-eat?

Rabbit meat is a component of traditional diets, often incorporated into iconic dishes of regional cuisine. Its consumption can be traced back to the ancient civilisations of the Mediterranean and beyond, well into the Palaeolithic era. Even though it has been representing considerable nutritional and cultural value for millennia, a decline in consumption is now noticeable. Specific categorial dynamics are at play, related to the various superimposed roles of rabbits as livestock, game, pests, laboratory animals and pets. Their perceived cuteness in particular can lead to emotional responses that are hard to reconcile with the sensitivities of the post-domestic paradigm. Such effects compromise the acceptability of rabbit meat in contemporary Western societies that are typified by problematic human-animal interactions and a disconnect from the food chain. Young and urban populations in particular now seem to have difficulties facing the notion that food production requires the killing of animals. As a result, a traditional food source risks becoming irrelevant despite its high nutritional value and potential for sustainable meat production, due to reasons that are emotive rather than rational.

Beliefs and Experiences of Individuals Following a Zero-Carb Diet

The adoption of carbohydrate-restrictive diets to improve health is increasing in popularity, but there is a dearth of research on individuals who choose to severely restrict or entirely exclude carbohydrates. The present study investigated the beliefs and experiences of individuals following a diet that severely limits, or entirely excludes, dietary carbohydrates, colloquially known as a ‘zero-carb’ diet, for at least 6 months. Zero-carb dieters (n = 170) recruited via a social networking site completed an online qualitative survey prompting them to discuss their motives, rationale, and experiences of following a low-carb diet. Transcripts of participants’ responses were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. Results revealed that participants’ decision to follow a zero-carb diet was driven by health concerns and benefits. Participants expressed a strong social identity and belongingness to online zero-carb communities. Participants reported strong intentions to follow the diet indefinitely. Shortcomings of the diet centered on experienced stigma; lack of support from healthcare providers and significant others; limited access to, and high cost of, foods; and limited scientific data on the diet. Further research into the benefits and shortcomings of zero-carb diets across settings and populations is warranted, and guidelines for healthcare professionals on how to support individuals following a zero-carb diet are needed.