Improving pilots' risk assessment skills in low-flying operations: the role of feedback and experience

Effects of distance flown on pilot decision making in continued flight into deteriorating weather conditions

INTRODUCTION

Continuing flight into adverse weather remains a significant problem in general aviation (GA) safety. A variety of experiential, cognitive, and motivational factors have been suggested as explanations. Previous research has shown that adverse weather accidents occur further into planned flights than other types of accident, suggesting that previous investment of time and effort might be a contributing factor. The aim of this study was to experimentally determine the effect of prior commitment on general aviation pilots' decision-making and risk-taking in simulated VFR flights.

METHOD

Thirty-six licensed pilots 'flew' two simulated flights designed to simulate an encounter with deteriorating coastal weather and a developing extensive cloud base underneath the aircraft as it crossed a mountain range. After making a decision to continue or discontinue the flight, pilots completed a range of risk perception, risk taking, and situational awareness measures.

RESULTS

Visual flight rules were violated in 42% of the flights. Prior commitment, in terms of distance already flown, led to an increased tendency to continue the flight into adverse weather in the coastal 'scud running' scenario. Continuing pilots perceived the risks differently and showed greater risk tolerance than others. These 'bolder' pilots also tended to be more active and better qualified than the others.

CONCLUSIONS

There are undoubtedly multiple factors underlying any individual decision to continue or discontinue a flight. The willingness to tolerate a higher level of risk seems to be one such factor. This willingness can increase with time invested in the flight and also seems to be related to individual flight qualifications and experience.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

All pilots might benefit from carefully structured simulator sessions designed to safely teach practical risk management strategies with clear and immediate feedback.

Measuring Diagnostic Skills through the Utilization of Cues

The aim of this paper is to outline a theoretical and empirical case for the role of cue utilization in the cognitive process of diagnosis. Drawing on theories of skill acquisition, the case is made that the utilization of cues represents a critical precursor to the progression toward expertise but that the acquisition and utilization of cues is dependent upon a repertoire of cases and exemplars that have been acquired during the progression from novice to competence. Cases and exemplars form the basis of a mental model from which cues, in the form or feature-event or feature-object relationships, can be identified and retained in memory. The implications of a more sophisticated understanding of the role of cue utilization in skill acquisition will provide the foundation for more effective and more efficient industrial training systems in the future.

Impairment of a speed management strategy in young drivers under high cognitive workload

BACKGROUND

A training method known as Episodic training has shown promise in reducing speeding behavior in young drivers (Prabhakharan and Molesworth, 2011). The present study aimed to investigate how cognitive resources are utilized to implement this behavioral change.

METHOD

60 participants were randomly divided into four groups and completed a simulated training drive in Week 1 followed by a 10km simulated test drive in Week 2. As part of the test drive, two groups were asked to complete a secondary task (mental arithmetic task) in addition to the test drive.

RESULTS

The results indicated that implementing a speed management strategy elicited by Episodic training was successful in isolation, but came at a cognitive trade-off when performed in conjunction with a secondary task.

CONCLUSION

From an applied perspective, these results suggest driver training programmes should compartmentalize driver training in order to reduce the cognitive load experienced by trainee drivers, and hence facilitate in driver skill acquisition.

Repairing faulty scripts to reduce speeding behaviour in young drivers

BACKGROUND

Young drivers under the age of 25 throughout the world continue to be over-represented in motor vehicle accidents (WHO, 2007). A contributing factor to a large number of these motor vehicle accidents is speeding. Reducing drivers' tendency to speed remains a challenge. In aviation, one method that has yielded positive results in terms of improving pilots' risk management behaviour involves engaging pilots cognitively in the task (Molesworth et al., 2006). This type of training is hypothesized to repair faulty cognitive structures known as scripts. Therefore, the main aim of the present research was to examine the utility of a training program where drivers are actively engaged following a driving episode by giving them personalised feedback in order to reduce their tendency to speed.

METHOD

58 young (16-24 years) motorists were divided into four groups. All participants completed both a 'training' session followed by a test session one week apart. Training consisted of either, reading three accident cases involving speeding, cases with rules associated with the offence, a simulated drive with personalised post-drive feedback regarding speeding and its legal ramifications or a card sorting task (control). The main dependent variables were percentage of distance speeding and frequency of zone violations during the simulated drive in the test session.

RESULTS

A series of planned contrast analysis with family-wise error corrected at .017 revealed that receiving personalised feedback regarding speeding behaviour following a simulated drive significantly reduced speeding tendency in the test session, when compared to control. Reading case examples alone, or coupled with rules, appeared to have no impact on speeding behaviour, compared to control.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that training programs that actively engage individuals about a driving episode by providing them with personalised feedback may be effective in curbing young drivers' speeding behaviour. These results are discussed from a theoretical and applied perspective.

Rehearsal and verbal reminders in facilitating compliance with safety rules

Accidents and incidents often occur, because a basic and seemingly simple rule is 'forgotten', either unintentionally (error, lapse) or with some degree of deliberate negligence (violation). The present experiment examined the utility of a rehearsal and a last-minute reminder in reducing the magnitude of deviations from an important safety rule by qualified, but relatively inexperienced pilots, specifically, remaining above an altitude of 500-ft. A single rehearsal flight entailing a search for a target on the ground increased the minimum altitude in later flights, but this positive effect did not completely generalize when the target on the ground was changed. These results suggest that the rehearsal flight was encoded in a context-specific manner. The addition of an explicit, last minute reminder about the mandated minimum altitude just before each test flight failed to significantly alter the pilots' behavior. The results are discussed with respect to their theoretical and practical implications.

Promoting learning, memory, and transfer in a time-constrained, high hazard environment

Two methods of metacognitive reflection for promoting compliance with an aviation safety rule were tested in a transfer design. Two groups of pilots (n = 10) conducted a simulated flight entailing a search for a target on the ground. During this flight, only 35% of the pilots stayed above an altitude of 500 ft, the minimum allowed by relevant regulations. Following the flight, one group completed a self-explanation questionnaire, in which they explained their actions during the initial flight and what they would do in future flights. The other group completed a relapse-prevention questionnaire, in which they identified the circumstances leading to safety lapses and their future avoidance. A third group (n = 10) formed a rest control; they conducted a familiarization flight without a ground target or debriefing. One week later, all pilots conducted a series of test flights with the same or different ground targets as the initial flight. The self-explanation group showed 100% compliance when the ground target remained the same, but less so (<70%) when the ground target was different. The relapse-prevention group and control groups both showed low levels of compliance across all test flights (<30%). The results are discussed from theoretical and applied perspectives.

Predicting pilots' risk-taking behavior through an implicit association test

OBJECTIVE

The Implicit Association Test (IAT), in combination with a battery of additional psychometric tests, was employed to examine the accuracy with which it predicts pilots' risk-taking behavior.

BACKGROUND

Risk management is an integral part of piloting. Many factors affect pilots' risk management, including individual differences. Therefore, employing a unique methodology from social cognition, the present study examined the influence of attitude, as measured implicitly through the IAT, personality, and flight experience variables on pilots' risk-taking behavior.

METHOD

In addition to a simulated flight on a computer-based flight simulator, 35 pilots completed a battery of psychometric tests.

RESULTS

Among the 6 risk perception variables, 10 risk attitude variables, and 2 experience variables, only 2 variables were found to be significantly related with in-flight risk-taking behavior: everyday risk (risk perception) and the IAT effect (attitude). Of these, the IAT effect was the strongest predictor of flight behavior.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that implicit attitudinal measures, such as the IAT, provide a more accurate forecast of pilot behavior than do the more traditional explicit attitudinal or personality measures.

APPLICATION

An implicit attitudinal measure can be proactively employed to identify pilots who are potentially more likely to engage in high-risk activities, hence permitting a more strategic approach to pilot training.

Risk tolerance and pilot involvement in hazardous events and flight into adverse weather

INTRODUCTION

According to Lopes [Lopes, L.L. (1987). Between hope and fear: The psychology of risk. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 255-295] tolerance of risk may be governed by sensitivity to either the opportunities for gain or threats of loss involved.

METHODS

In the initial study, qualified pilots were presented with 36 written flight scenarios that varied in the levels of opportunity and threat present. The pilots rated the likelihood that they would undertake each flight. Pilots were largely risk averse, as their ratings were all significantly influenced by threat.

RESULTS

The pilots whose ratings were significantly influenced by opportunity had been involved in more hazardous aviation incidents than the other pilots. In the final study, 32 qualified pilots completed both the risk tolerance measure and a simulated flight into adverse weather. The pilots who continued flying into adverse weather were less risk averse compared to the pilots who diverted. This further highlighted the link between risk tolerance and risk-taking, and suggested that some pilots may fly into adverse weather because of a greater tolerance of risk.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

The studies provide evidence that a measure of risk tolerance can predict potential accident involvement amongst general aviation pilots.