The role of parents and non-parents in the supervision of learner drivers in Australia

Perceptions of novice driver education needs; Development of a scale based on the Goals for driver education using young driver and parent samples

Professional driver education and training has traditionally been used to improve the driving skills of young people with the expectation that they will drive more safely and therefore be less likely to crash. Despite this, much research has failed to find such an effect. The Goals for Driver Education (GDE) is a theoretical framework developed to improve the effectiveness of driver education. The GDE seeks to draw attention to a broader array of factors that may influence the driving of young people and hence increase the scope of what is included in driver education and training. Within the GDE, factors affecting driving and driver education are grouped into combinations of four hierarchical levels that represent influences on driving at increasing levels of abstraction (GDE level 1: Vehicle manoeuvring; GDE level 2: Mastery of traffic situations; GDE level 3: Goals and contexts of driving; GDE level 4: Goals for life and skills for living) and three types of individual competencies (Knowledge and skills; Risk-increasing factors; Self-evaluation skills). However, to date there have been few, if any, attempts to operationalise the GDE in a quantitative way. In response, the Perceptions of Driver Education Scale (PDES) was developed to gain an understanding of what two important stakeholder groups in the driver education and training ecosystem perceived to be important to be taught to novice drivers. Understanding these perceptions may lead to greater acceptance of the driver education and training that is designed and make it more effective. Following rigorous scale development procedures, thirty-five items were developed a priori using expert opinion and deployed, via an online survey, to a sample of parents of novice drivers (N = 518) and a separate sample of novice drivers (N = 247), both from Queensland, Australia. Exploratory Factor Analysis was performed on the parent responses and Confirmatory Factor Analysis was performed using the novice driver responses. A 29-item 9 factor solution was judged to be the best fit with the overall scale and each of the factors displaying strong levels of internal consistency. The 9 factors cover most hierarchical level and competency combinations, although removal of items meant that there is no representation concerning perceptions of Self-evaluation skills related to Level 3: Goals and contexts of driving within the PDES. Overall, the PDES is a valid and reliable instrument for investigating the aspects of driver education and training that are perceived as important by novice drivers and parents. The scale may also be applicable for use with other stakeholder groups and could also be used to evaluate pre-existing driver education and training programs.

Learner drivers (and their parent-supervisors) benefit from an online hazard perception course incorporating evidence-based training strategies and extensive crash footage

We previously found that a six-session online hazard perception training course, which incorporates evidence-based learning strategies and footage of over a hundred real crashes, improved hazard perception skill and reduced risk-taking intentions in novice drivers who had passed their on-road driving test within the previous three years. However, one issue with targeting crash-prevention training at individuals who are already driving unsupervised is that drivers are at their highest crash risk immediately after they pass their on-road driving test. That is, the training may arrive too late to protect drivers while they are at their most vulnerable. It is also possible that it may prove difficult to persuade drivers to complete an unsupervised training course if they are already licensed to drive independently. Given that learner drivers cannot drive unsupervised, and that they are typically supervised by a parent, one potential strategy is to target the training at learners and to ask their parents to provide one-on-one mentoring throughout the course. We therefore recruited learner driver/parent-supervisor dyads to participate in a randomized control study, with the objective of examining the effects of the hazard perception training course on aspects of driving behaviour associated with crash risk (as measured using validated computer-based tests). Outcome measures included two hazard perception skill assessments (a response time hazard perception test and a verbal response hazard prediction test), and three tests assessing aspects of risk-taking propensity in driving (speed choice, following distance, and gap acceptance). Learners who completed the course (N = 26) significantly improved their scores on both hazard perception skill measures, and also chose safer following distances, compared with a waitlist control group (N = 23). However, the training did not significantly reduce learners' speed choice or gap acceptance propensity. The hazard perception skill of parent-supervisors, who observed the course but did not complete it, also improved on both hazard perception measures, relative to controls. Additionally, both learners and their parent-supervisors reported a range of positive effects on the learners' real-world driving performance. These results suggest that this type of hazard perception training could be beneficial if deployed during the learner phase of driver licensing.

Could Road Safety Education (RSE) Help Parents Protect Children? Examining Their Driving Crashes with Children on Board

Recent evidence suggests that driving behavior and traffic safety outcomes of parents may be influenced by the extent to which they receive information and education on road safety, as well as the fact of driving with their children on board, which may increase their risk perception. However, there are no studies specifically addressing the case of crashes suffered while driving with children. Hence, this study aimed to describe the relationship between road safety education-related variables and parents' traffic safety outcomes while driving with children on board. For this cross-sectional study, data was retrieved from a sample composed of 165 Spanish parents-all of them licensed drivers-with a mean age of 45.3 years. Through binary logistic regression (logit) analysis, it was found that factors such as gender, having received road safety education (RSE), and having been sanctioned for the performance of risky driving behavior contribute to modulating the likelihood of suffering crashes while driving with children on board. Gender differences showed a riskier status for male parents. In this study, a set of risk factors explaining the involvement in traffic crashes when driving with children as passengers was identified among parents: gender, traffic sanctions, valuation, and exposure to road safety campaigns. Also, substantial limitations in the self-reported degree of received RSE were found, especially considering that risky driving behavior and traffic crash rates with children on board still have a high prevalence among parents.

Traffic Crash Characteristics in Shenzhen, China from 2014 to 2016

Road traffic crashes cause fatalities and injuries of both drivers/passengers in vehicles and pedestrians outside, thus challenge public health especially in big cities in developing countries like China. Previous efforts mainly focus on a specific crash type or causation to examine the crash characteristics in China while lacking the characteristics of various crash types, factors, and the interplay between them. This study investigated the crash characteristics in Shenzhen, one of the biggest four cities in China, based on the police-reported crashes from 2014 to 2016. The descriptive characteristics were reported in detail with respect to each of the crash attributes. Based on the recorded crash locations, the land-use pattern was obtained as one of the attributes for each crash. Then, the relationship between the attributes in motor-vehicle-involved crashes was examined using the Bayesian network analysis. We revealed the distinct crash characteristics observed between the examined levels of each attribute, as well the interplay between the attributes. This study provides an insight into the crash characteristics in Shenzhen, which would help understand the driving behavior of Chinese drivers, identify the traffic safety problems, guide the research focuses on advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs) and traffic management countermeasures in China.

What, Who, and When? The Perceptions That Young Drivers and Parents Have of Driving Simulators for Use in Driver Education

Driver education providers may utilise technologies such as driving simulators to augment their existing courses. Understanding the perceptions that young drivers and parents have of simulators may help to make simulator-based driver education more accepted and more likely to be effective. Young drivers and parents completed an online questionnaire that included a “simulator invention” visualisation task. Items based on the Goals for Driver Education framework investigated perceptions of the most appropriate skill type, while others examined the most suitable target group for simulator training, and timing in relation to completing a formal driver education course for simulator training to occur. Both groups perceived that simulators were most appropriate for training a combination of physical, traffic, psychological, and social driving skills with learner drivers during attendance at a novice driver education program. Young drivers and parents had similar perceptions regarding the amount that each skill type should be trained using a simulator. Understanding the perceptions of young drivers and parents, and especially those who are somewhat naïve to the use of driving simulators, may aid in the introduction and administration of simulator training and may increase the effectiveness of driver education as a crash countermeasure.

Novice drivers’ experiences of parental encouragement with road rules in Queensland: Scope for a third party policing approach?

This study explored whether a third party policing approach is appropriate for increasing young driver compliance with graduated driver licensing restrictions. Focus groups (n = 3) and semi-structured interviews (n = 24) were conducted with young drivers from Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Participants (n = 39 in total) were aged 17 to 19 years and held a Provisional 1 or 2 licence. Many young drivers appreciated the involvement of their parents in their novice driving period and reported that parents provided practical support and planning strategies. There is potential for the use of a third party policing intervention to improve compliance amongst young drivers.

Design and implementation of a parent guide for coaching teen drivers

INTRODUCTION

Teens beginning to drive independently are at significant increased risk of motor-vehicle crashes relative to their other life stages. There is, however, little guidance for parents as to how best to supervise learning to drive.

METHOD

This study sought to undertake an informed approach to development and implementation of a Parent Guide. We included a multi-stage development process, using theory, findings from a Delphi-study of young driver traffic-safety experts, and parent focus groups. This process informed the development of a Guide that was then evaluated for feasibility and acceptability, comparing a group that received the Guide with a control group of parent and teen dyads. Both members of the dyads were surveyed at baseline, again at the approximate time teens would be licensed to drive independently (post-test), and again three months later.

RESULTS

We found no difference in the proportion of teens who became licensed between those given the new Guide and control teens (who received the state-developed booklet); that is the Guide did not appear to promote or delay licensure. Teens in the Guide group reported that their parents were more likely to use the provided resource compared with control teens. Responses indicated that the Parent Guide was favorably viewed, that it was easy to use, and that the logging of hours was a useful inclusion. Parents noted that the Guide helped them manage their stress, provided strategies to keep calm, and helped with planning practice. In contrast, control parents noted that their booklet helped explain rules. Among licensed teens there was no significant difference in self-reported risky driving at the three-month follow-up. We discuss the challenges in providing motivation for parents to move beyond a set number of practice hours to provide diversity of driving practice.

Factors Influencing Learner Permit Duration

An increasing number of countries are requiring an extended learner permit prior to independent driving. The question of when drivers begin the learner permit period, and how long they hold the permit before advancing to independent licensure has received little research attention. Licensure timing is likely to be related to "push" and "pull" factors which may encourage or inhibit the process. To examine this question, we recruited a sample of 90 novice drivers (49 females and 41 males, average age of 15.6 years) soon after they obtained a learner permit and instrumented their vehicles to collect a range of driving data. Participants completed a series of surveys at recruitment related to factors that may influence licensure timing. Two distinct findings emerged from the time-to-event analysis that tested these push and pull factors in relation to licensure timing. The first can be conceptualized as teens' motivation to drive (push), reflected in a younger age when obtaining a learner permit and extensive pre-permit driving experience. The second finding was teens' perceptions of their parents' knowledge of their activities (pull); a proxy for a parents' attentiveness to their teens' lives. Teens who reported higher levels of their parents' knowledge of their activities took longer to advance to independent driving. These findings suggest time-to-licensure may be related to teens' internal motivation to drive, and the ability of parents to facilitate or impede early licensure.

Naturalistic assessment of the learner license period

The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics and progression of practice driving during the learner license period in a sample of teenagers. During the first and last 10h of practice driving, we examined (1) the amount, variety and complexity of conditions of practice; (2) the nature of parental instruction; and (3) errors that teens made while driving. Data were collected from 90 teens and 131 parents living in Virginia, USA, using in-vehicle cameras, audio recorders, GPS and trip recorders. Based on data collected from the instrumented vehicles, teens practiced for 46.6h on average, slightly higher than the GDL requirement for their jurisdiction, though half did not complete the required 45h of practice and only 17% completed the required 15h of night time driving. Exposure to diverse roadways increased over the practice driving period, which averaged 10.6 months. Most driving instruction occurred in reaction to specific driving situations, such as navigating and identifying hazards, and could be characterized as co-driving. Higher order instruction, which relates to the tactics or strategies for safe driving, was less frequent, but remained stable through the practice driving period. Instruction of all forms was more likely following an elevated gravitational force (g-force) event. Errors decreased over time, suggesting improvements in manual and judgment skills, but engagement in potentially distracting secondary tasks increased (when an adult was in the vehicle). A small percentage of trips occurred with no passenger in the front seat, and the g-force rate during these trips was almost 5 times higher than trips with an adult front-seat passenger. Taken collectively, these findings indicate (1) most teens got at least the required amount of supervised practice, but some did not; (2) instruction was mainly reactive and included some higher order instruction; (3) teens driving skills improved despite increased exposure to complex driving conditions, but secondary tasks also increased. Opportunities remained for improving the quality and variability in supervision and enhancing the development of skills during the lengthy period of practice.

Young and unaffected by road policing strategies: Using deterrence theory to explain provisional drivers’ (non)compliance

Newly licenced drivers are disproportionately represented in traffic injuries and crash statistics. Despite the implementation of countermeasures designed to improve safety, such as graduated driver licencing (GDL) schemes, many young drivers do not comply with road rules. This study used a reconceptualised deterrence theory framework to investigate young drivers’ perceptions of the enforcement of road rules in general and those more specifically related to GDL. A total of 236 drivers aged 17–24 completed a questionnaire assessing their perceptions of various deterrence mechanisms (personal and vicarious) and their compliance with both GDL-specific and general road rules. Hierarchical multiple regressions conducted to explore noncompliant behaviour revealed that, contrary to theoretical expectations, neither personal nor vicarious punishment experiences affected compliance in the expected direction. Instead, the most influential factors contributing to noncompliance were licence type (P2) and, counterintuitively, having previously been exposed to enforcement. Parental enforcement was also significant in the prediction of transient rule violations, but not fixed rule violations or overall noncompliance. Findings are discussed in light of several possibilities, including an increase in violations due to more time spent on the road, an ‘emboldening effect’ noted in prior studies and possible conceptual constraints regarding the deterrence variables examined in this study.

Graduated Driver Licensing: An international review

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) aims to gradually increase the exposure of new drivers to more complex driving situations and typically consists of learner, provisional and open licence phases. The first phase, the learner licence, is designed to allow novice drivers to obtain practical driving experience in lower risk situations. The learner licence can delay licensure, encourage novice drivers to learn under supervision, mandate the number of hours of practice required to progress to the next phase and encourage parental involvement. The second phase, the provisional licence, establishes various driving restrictions and thereby reduces exposure to situations of higher risk, such as driving at night, with passengers or after drinking alcohol. Parental involvement with a GDL system appears essential in helping novices obtain sufficient practice and in enforcing compliance with restrictions once the new driver obtains a provisional licence. Given the significant number of young drivers involved in crashes within Oman, GDL is one countermeasure that may be beneficial in reducing crash risk and involvement for this group.