The acute effects of continuous and intermittent cycling on executive function in children

Diverse Intensities of Acute Aerobic Exercise Impacts Immediate and Short-Term Cognitive Functioning in Young Adults

The present study investigated the impact of three intensities of aerobic exercise -- low intensity [LIE), moderate intensity [MIE], and higher intensity [HIE]) -- on information processing and executive functioning. Forty participants (19, male; 21, female) between the ages of 18-25 (mean = 20.75, SD = ± 2.56) were randomly assigned to either a non-exercise-control (CON), LIE, MIE, or HIE groups. Participants took part in (1) single choice (SC), multichoice (MC), and dual-task (DT) response-time tasks to ascertain the speed of information processing, and (2) the Trail Making Test (TMT) to ascertain executive functioning, before exercise and 1 min and 20 min postexercise. Information processing was analyzed by fractionating total response time (RPT) into reaction time (RT), and movement time (MT). Trail Making Test, RPT, RT, and MT data were analyzed using separate 4 (Group [CON, LIE, MIE, HIE]) x 3 (Test Trial Block [pre-exercise, 1 min postexercise, 20 min postexercise]) repeated measures ANOVA. Results indicated that to varying extents participants in the three exercise groups significantly improved their RT and RPT during MC and DT tasks, but not during the SC task, and improved their TMT scores (ranging from p < .05 to p < .001) compared to CON group participants and that these improvements were observed at 1 min and 20 min postexercise. Based on the results, exercises of varying intensities positively affected the speed of information processing during the more complex response time tasks (MC and DT) and positively impacted executive functioning. As RT, and not MT, was primarily affected by exercise and as RT represents more central nervous system (CNS) processing, the faciliatory effect of exercise on the speed of information processing involved more rapidity of cortical processing than rapidity of movement when completing the MC and DT response-time tasks.

The effects of an acute bout of ergometer cycling on young adults' executive function: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose

The extent to which acute exercise improves executive function (EF) remains indeterminate. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the effect of acute ergometer cycling exercise on executive function (EF), including the potential moderating effects of exercise intensity and duration, EF task type, and EF task onset.

Methods

We searched seven electronic research databases using cycling- and cognition-related terms. All 17 studies included were published in the last 10 years and comprised healthy participants aged 18-35 years who completed tasks assessing a variety of EFs before and after cycling exercise lasting 10-60 min. We analyzed 293 effect sizes obtained from 494 individuals (mean age = 22.07 ± 2.46 yrs). Additional analyses were performed, using averaged effect sizes for each separate study to examine the omnibus effect across studies.

Results

There was a positive effect of acute ergometer cycling exercise on response time (RT) in 16 of 17 studies reviewed and a positive effect for response accuracy (RA) in 8 of 14 studies; three studies did not report RA data. Hedges' g effect sizes [95% CI] for RT ranged from 0.06 [-0.45, 0.56] to 1.50 [0.58, 2.43] and for RA from -1.94 [-2.61, -1.28] to 1.03 [0.88, 1.19].Bouts of cycling completed at moderate intensities appear to have the greatest effect on RT (Hedges' g = 1.03 [0.88, 1.19]) but no significant effect on RA; bouts with durations of 21-30 min appear to offer the greatest benefits for both RT (Hedges' g = 0.77 [0.41, 1.13]) and RA (Hedges' g = 0.92 [0.31, 1.52]). Effect sizes were greatest for RT in inhibitory control tasks (Hedges' g = 0.91 [0.80, 1.03]) and for RT when EF tasks were completed immediately post-exercise (Hedges' g = 1.11 [0.88, 1.33]).

Findings were similar in the omnibus analyses

moderate-intensity bouts had the greatest effect on RT, SMD = 0.79 (95% CI [0.49, 1.08]), z = 5.20, p < 0.0001, as did cycling durations of 21-30 min, SMD = 0.87 (95% CI [0.58, 1.15], z = 5.95, p < 0.0001. The greatest benefits were derived for inhibitory control tasks, SMD = 0.70 (95% CI [0.43, 0.98]), z = 5.07, p < 0.04, and when the EF task was completed immediately post-exercise, SMD = 0.96 (95% CI [0.51, 1.41]), z = 4.19, p < 0.001. There were no overall effects on RA.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that acute bouts of cycling exercise may be a viable means to enhance RTs in immediately subsequent EF task performance, but moderating and interactive effects of several exercise parameters must also be considered.

The Acute Effects of Cognitively Demanding Physical Activity on Inhibitory and Affective Responses in Children: An Online-Based Mixed Methods Approach

This online study investigated the acute effects of a cognitively demanding physical activity (CDPA) vs a simple physical activity (SPA) bout on children’s inhibitory and affective responses. Using a counterbalanced within-subjects’ crossover design, thirty-nine participants aged 9−12 years old (29 boys; Mage = 11 ± 1 years) performed a CDPA and a SPA bout online (via ZOOM) for 15 min. Inhibition (Stroop test) was measured at the baseline, 1 and 30 min following the physical activity (PA) bouts, and self-report measures of affect, mental and physical exertion were taken prior, during and post-PA. Additionally, 31 children took part in semi-structured focus groups to explore the factors affecting their enjoyment. The quantitative results suggest no significant differences on inhibitory responses, affect and physical exertion (all p > 0.05). However, the CDPA induced more mental exertion than the SPA did (p < 0.05). In the focus groups, four themes were identified: physical exertion (e.g., tiredness), social (e.g., teams/groups), environment (e.g., outdoors and competition) and emotional (e.g., fun/enjoyment). Some children (n = 18) reported that the CDPA condition confused them, and to make these activities more interesting and enjoyable, they suggested performing the activities outdoors (n = 15) and including other children as part of a group/team (n = 19). The findings suggest no additional benefit of a cognitively enriched physical activity compared to an SPA bout on the inhibitory responses, affect and enjoyment. Using the instructions provided and given the low cost, the easy administration and the minimal amount of equipment and time involved, either of the approaches may be used in a diversity of contexts (i.e., online, schools or outdoors), and it is worth exploring the effects of these conditions on other aspects of executive function.

Exploring the Acute Effects of the Daily Mile™ vs. Shuttle Runs on Children’s Cognitive and Affective Responses

Background: This study investigated the acute effects of two physical activity (PA) bouts on children’s cognitive and affective responses. Methods: Twenty-nine participants (16 boys and 13 girls; M_age = 9.34 years, SD = 0.48), using a within-subjects crossover design, performed three 15-min conditions: (a) TDM—The Daily Mile™; (b) 12 repeated 30–45-s shuttle runs at ≥ 85% HR_MAX; and (c) a sedentary control condition. Cognitive performance (i.e., Stroop, Digit Span, and Corsi blocks) was measured before PA and 1 and 30 min post-PA. Felt Arousal and Feeling Scale self-report scales were administered before, during, and after PA. Results: The results show no changes following the TDM condition relative to the sedentary control condition in cognitive responses. However, when comparing the shuttle runs condition to the sedentary control condition, participants showed higher arousal, an improved reaction time, and lower self-reported pleasure at 1 min post-PA. Nevertheless, at 30 min post-PA, participants’ pleasure values were higher in the shuttle runs condition than they were before PA. Conclusions: When comparing PA conditions, shuttle runs enhanced reaction time and might thus be seen as an option to implement or modify PA opportunities in school settings.

Effects of Acute High-Intensity Interval Exercise and High-Intensity Continuous Exercise on Inhibitory Function of Overweight and Obese Children

This study aimed to examine whether a single bout each of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and high-intensity continuous exercise (HICE) could improve inhibitory functions of overweight and obese children, and which mode of exercise was more beneficial. Seventy-two overweight and obese children, with (26.02 ± 1.05 kg/m2), aged 10-14 years (11.56 ± 1.03 years), were randomly assigned to three groups. The HIIE group completed a 30-min treadmill exercise session (5-min warm up, 20-min HIIE, and 5-min cool-down). The HICE group performed 30 min of rope skipping, while the control (CON) group watched a designated cartoon on a tablet computer for the same duration. Reaction time and number of errors in the Stroop test were determined before and after the intervention. The difference between pre- and post-test reaction time scores was higher in the HIIE and HICE groups than in the CON group, while the pre- and post-test difference in the number of errors was similar between groups. Overall, it is likely that both acute HIIE and HICE were similarly efficient in facilitating cognitive and inhibitory functions of children with overweight and obesity conditions, supporting the benefits of acute high-intensity exercise probability for cognitive functions of children in general, as well as of the population with overweight and obesity conditions.