Using human stem cells as a model system to understand the neural mechanisms of alcohol use disorders: Current status and outlook

Polygenic risk for alcohol use disorder affects cellular responses to ethanol exposure in a human microglial cell model

Polygenic risk scores (PRSs) assess genetic susceptibility to alcohol use disorder (AUD), yet their molecular implications remain underexplored. Neuroimmune interactions, particularly in microglia, are recognized as notable contributors to AUD pathophysiology. We investigated the interplay between AUD PRS and ethanol in human microglia derived from iPSCs from individuals with AUD high-PRS (diagnosed with AUD) or low-PRS (unaffected). Ethanol exposure induced elevated CD68 expression and morphological changes in microglia, with differential responses between high-PRS and low-PRS microglial cells. Transcriptomic analysis revealed expression differences in MHCII complex and phagocytosis-related genes following ethanol exposure; high-PRS microglial cells displayed enhanced phagocytosis and increased CLEC7A expression, unlike low-PRS microglial cells. Synapse numbers in cocultures of induced neurons with microglia after alcohol exposure were lower in high-RPS cocultures, suggesting possible excess synapse pruning. This study provides insights into the intricate relationship between AUD PRS, ethanol, and microglial function, potentially influencing neuronal functions in developing AUD.

5. Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism: Functional genomics

Alcohol Use Disorder is a complex genetic disorder, involving genetic, neural, and environmental factors, and their interactions. The Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) has been investigating these factors and identified putative alcohol use disorder risk genes through genome-wide association studies. In this review, we describe advances made by COGA in elucidating the functional changes induced by alcohol use disorder risk genes using multimodal approaches with human cell lines and brain tissue. These studies involve investigating gene regulation in lymphoblastoid cells from COGA participants and in post-mortem brain tissues. High throughput reporter assays are being used to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms in which alternate alleles differ in driving gene expression. Specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (both coding or noncoding) have been modeled using induced pluripotent stem cells derived from COGA participants to evaluate the effects of genetic variants on transcriptomics, neuronal excitability, synaptic physiology, and the response to ethanol in human neurons from individuals with and without alcohol use disorder. We provide a perspective on future studies, such as using polygenic risk scores and populations of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons to identify signaling pathways related with responses to alcohol. Starting with genes or loci associated with alcohol use disorder, COGA has demonstrated that integration of multimodal data within COGA participants and functional studies can reveal mechanisms linking genomic variants with alcohol use disorder, and potential targets for future treatments.

Modeling SARS-CoV-2 infection in individuals with opioid use disorder with brain organoids

The COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated a preexisting epidemic: the opioid crisis. Much literature has shown that the circumstances imposed by COVID-19, such as social distancing regulations, medical and financial instability, and increased mental health issues, have been detrimental to those with opioid use disorder (OUD). In addition, unexpected neurological sequelae in COVID-19 patients suggest that COVID-19 compromises neuroimmunity, induces hypoxia, and causes respiratory depression, provoking similar effects as those caused by opioid exposure. Combined conditions of COVID-19 and OUD could lead to exacerbated complications. With limited human in vivo options to study these complications, we suggest that iPSC-derived brain organoid models may serve as a useful platform to investigate the physiological connection between COVID-19 and OUD. This mini-review highlights the advances of brain organoids in other neuropsychiatric and infectious diseases and suggests their potential utility for investigating OUD and COVID-19, respectively.

Differential sensitivity of human neurons carrying μ opioid receptor (MOR) N40D variants in response to ethanol

The acute and chronic effects of alcohol on the brain and behavior are linked to alterations in inhibitory synaptic transmission. Alcohol's most consistent effect at the synaptic level is probably a facilitation of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) release, as seen from several rodent studies. The impact of alcohol on GABAergic neurotransmission in human neurons is unknown, due to a lack of a suitable experimental model. Human neurons can also be used to model effects of genetic variants linked with alcohol use disorders (AUDs). The A118G single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP rs1799971) of the OPRM1 gene encoding the N40D (D40 minor allele) mu-opioid receptor (MOR) variant has been linked with individuals who have an AUD. However, while N40D is clearly associated with other drugs of abuse, involvement with AUDs is controversial. In this study, we employed Ascl1-and Dlx2-induced inhibitory neuronal cells (AD-iNs) generated from human iPS cell lines carrying N40D variants, and investigated the impact of ethanol acutely and chronically on GABAergic synaptic transmission. We found that N40 AD-iNs display a stronger facilitation (versus D40) of spontaneous and miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current frequency in response to acute ethanol application. Quantitative immunocytochemistry of Synapsin 1+ synaptic puncta revealed a similar synapse number between N40 and D40 iNs, suggesting an ethanol modulation of presynaptic GABA release without affecting synapse density. Interestingly, D40 iNs exposed to chronic intermittent ethanol application caused a significant increase in mIPSC frequency, with only a modest enhancement observed in N40 iNs. These data suggest that the MOR genotype may confer differential sensitivity to synaptic output, which depends on ethanol exposure time and concentration for AD-iNs and may help explain alcohol dependence in individuals who carry the MOR D40 SNPs. Furthermore, this study supports the use of human neuronal cells carrying risk-associated genetic variants linked to disease, as in vitro models to assay the synaptic actions of alcohol on human neuronal cells.

Addiction associated N40D mu-opioid receptor variant modulates synaptic function in human neurons

The OPRM1 A118G single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP rs1799971) gene variant encoding the N40D µ-opioid receptor (MOR) has been associated with dependence on opiates and other drugs of abuse but its mechanism is unknown. The frequency of G-allele carriers is ~40% in Asians, ~16% in Europeans, and ~3% in African-Americans. With opioid abuse-related deaths rising at unprecedented rates, understanding these mechanisms may provide a path to therapy. Here we generated homozygous N40D subject-specific induced inhibitory neuronal cells (iNs) from seven human-induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell lines from subjects of European descent (both male and female) and probed the impact of N40D MOR regulation on synaptic transmission. We found that D40 iNs exhibit consistently stronger suppression (versus N40) of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) across multiple subjects. To mitigate the confounding effects of background genetic variation on neuronal function, the regulatory effects of MORs on synaptic transmission were recapitulated in two sets of independently engineered isogenic N40D iNs. In addition, we employed biochemical analysis and observed differential N-linked glycosylation of human MOR N40D. This study identifies neurophysiological and molecular differences between human MOR variants that may predict altered opioid responsivity and/or dependence in this subset of individuals.

Synaptic Regulation by OPRM1 Variants in Reward Neurocircuitry

Mu-opioid receptors (MORs) are the primary site of action of opioid drugs, both licit and illicit. Susceptibility to opioid addiction is associated with variants in the gene encoding the MOR, OPRM1 Varying with ethnicity, ∼25% of humans carry a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in OPRM1 (A118G). This SNP produces a nonsynonymous amino acid substitution, replacing asparagine (N40) with aspartate (D40), and has been linked with an increased risk for drug addiction. While a murine model of human OPRM1 A118G (A112G in mouse) recapitulates most of the phenotypes reported in humans, the neuronal mechanisms underlying these phenotypes remain elusive. Here, we investigated the impact of A118G on opioid regulation of synaptic transmission in mesolimbic VTA dopaminergic neurons. Using electrophysiology, we showed that both inhibitory and excitatory inputs to VTA dopaminergic neurons projecting to the NAc medial shell were suppressed by the MOR agonists DAMGO and morphine, which caused a shift in the excitatory/inhibitory balance and an increased action potential firing rate. Mice carrying the 112G/G allele exhibited lower sensitivity to DAMGO and morphine compared with major allele carriers (112A/A). Paradoxically, DAMGO produced facilitatory effects on mEPSCs, which were mediated by presynaptic GABA_B receptors. However, this was only prominent in homozygous major allele carriers, which could explain a stronger shift in action potential firing in 112A/A mice. This study provides a better understanding on the neurobiological mechanisms that may underlie risk of addiction development in carriers of the A118G SNP in OPRM1 SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The pandemic of opioid drug abuse is associated with many socioeconomic burdens. The primary brain target of opioid drugs is the μ-opioid receptor (MOR), encoded by the OPRM1 gene, which is highly polymorphic in humans. Using a mouse model of the human OPRM1 A118G single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) (A112G in mice), we demonstrated that MOR and GABA_B signaling coordinate in regulating mesolimbic dopamine neuronal firing via presynaptic regulation. The A118G SNP affects MOR-mediated suppression of GABA and glutamate release, showing weaker efficacy of synaptic regulation by MORs. These results may shed light on whether MOR SNPs need to be considered for devising effective therapeutic interventions.

Alcohol-responsive genes identified in human iPSC-derived neural cultures

Alcohol use contributes to numerous diseases and injuries. The nervous system is affected by alcohol in diverse ways, though the molecular mechanisms of these effects are not clearly understood. Using human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), we developed a neural cell culture model to identify the mechanisms of alcohol's effects. iPSCs were generated from fibroblasts and differentiated into forebrain neural cells cultures that were treated with 50 mM alcohol or sham conditions (same media lacking alcohol) for 7 days. We analyzed gene expression using total RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) for 34 samples derived from 10 subjects and for 10 samples from 5 subjects in an independent experiment that had intermittent exposure to the same dose of alcohol. We also analyzed genetic effects on gene expression and conducted a weighted correlation network analysis. We found that differentiated neural cell cultures have the capacity to recapitulate gene regulatory effects previously observed in specific primary neural tissues and identified 226 genes that were differentially expressed (FDR < 0.1) after alcohol treatment. The effects on expression included decreases in INSIG1 and LDLR, two genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. We also identified a module of 58 co-expressed genes that were uniformly decreased following alcohol exposure. The majority of these effects were supported in independent alcohol exposure experiments. Enrichment analysis linked the alcohol responsive genes to cell cycle, notch signaling, and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways, which are disrupted in several neurological disorders. Our findings suggest that there is convergence between these disorders and the effects of alcohol exposure.

Stem cells under the influence of alcohol: effects of ethanol consumption on stem/progenitor cells

Stem cells drive embryonic and fetal development. In several adult tissues, they retain the ability to self-renew and differentiate into a variety of specialized cells, thus contributing to tissue homeostasis and repair throughout life span. Alcohol consumption is associated with an increased risk for several diseases and conditions. Growing and developing tissues are particularly vulnerable to alcohol's influence, suggesting that stem- and progenitor-cell function could be affected. Accordingly, recent studies have revealed the possible relevance of alcohol exposure in impairing stem-cell properties, consequently affecting organ development and injury response in different tissues. Here, we review the main studies describing the effects of alcohol on different types of progenitor/stem cells including neuronal, hepatic, intestinal and adventitial progenitor cells, bone-marrow-derived stromal cell, dental pulp, embryonic and hematopoietic stem cells, and tumor-initiating cells. A better understanding of the nature of the cellular damage induced by chronic and episodic heavy (binge) drinking is critical for the improvement of current therapeutic strategies designed to treat patients suffering from alcohol-related disorders.