Alcohol stigma as it relates to drinking behaviors and perceptions of drink drivers: A mixed method study in Moshi, Tanzania

Using the ADAPT guidance to culturally adapt a brief intervention to reduce alcohol use among injury patients in Tanzania

Harmful alcohol use is a leading risk factor for injury-related death and disability in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Brief negotiational interventions (BNIs) in emergency departments (EDs) effectively reduce alcohol intake and re-injury rates. However, most BNIs are developed in high-income countries, with limited evidence of their effectiveness in LMICs. To address this gap, we culturally adapted a BNI for alcohol-related injury patients at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC), a tertiary hospital in Tanzania. Our study followed the ADAPT guidance to culturally adapt an existing high-income country BNI for use in the KCMC, a tertiary hospital in Tanzania. The adaptation included: 1) a systematic review of effective alcohol harm reduction interventions in similar settings; 2) consultations with local and international healthcare professionals experienced in counseling and substance abuse treatment; 3) group discussions to refine goals and finalize adaptations. The adapted BNI protocol and assessment scales ensured intervention fidelity. At KCMC, 30% of injury patients screened positive for alcohol use disorder (AUD), with a five-fold increased risk of injury, primarily from road traffic accidents and violence. A systematic review highlighted limited data on patient-level interventions in low-resource settings. Our adapted BNI, 'Punguza Pombe Kwa Afya Yako (PPKAY)', based on the FRAMES model, showed high feasibility and acceptability, with 84% of interventions achieving ≥80% adherence and 98% patient satisfaction. PPKAY is the first culturally adapted alcohol BNI for injury patients in an African ED. Our study demonstrates our approach to adapting substance use interventions for use in low resource settings and shows that cultural adaptation of alcohol use interventions is feasible, beneficial and empowering for our team. Our study lays a framework and method for other low resourced settings to integrate cultural adaptation into the implementation of a BNI in low resource EDs.

Sex differences in alcohol use patterns and related harms: A mixed-methods, cross-sectional study of men and women in northern Tanzania

In northern Tanzania, alcohol use disorders (AUD) are under-diagnosed and under-treated, and current services are mostly limited to men in clinical settings despite significant alcohol-related harm in the community. The study objective was to identify sex differences in alcohol use and alcohol-related harms within and across community and clinical settings. This was a congruent triangulation mixed methods study consisting of focus group discussions (FGDs) and cross-sectional surveys. Quantitative analysis was conducted via Drinker Inventory of Consequences (DrInC) and Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) data from injury patients presenting for care at the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Center Emergency Department and community participants. Differences in scores by sex were assessed using unpaired t-tests. K-means algorithms were run independently in both samples. Deductive thematic analysis was conducted on FGDs with community members, injury patients, and injury patient relatives. Differences in mean scores between sexes in the community and patient samples were statistically significant (p<0.05). Men showed higher AUDIT and DrInC mean scores in both samples. K-means separated the community and patient samples into two clusters, one with and one without harmful alcohol use. Of those indicating harmful alcohol use, the community cluster (n = 77, AUDIT = 14.29±9.22, DrInC = 22.67±6.80) was 27% women; the patient cluster (n = 57, AUDIT = 15.00±9.48, DrInC = 27.00±7.76) was 5% women. FGD transcripts revealed sex differences in four themes: alcohol initiation, consumption patterns, risk behaviors, and social stigma. This study identified important sex differences in the manifestation of AUD in northern Tanzania with respect to alcohol initiation, consumption patterns, risk behavior, and stigma. These findings indicate that women may need to be encouraged to seek injury care at the Emergency Department. Future research, prevention, and treatment efforts intended to reduce alcohol-related harms need to account for sex differences to optimize reach and effectiveness.

A mixed-methods comparison of gender differences in alcohol consumption and drinking characteristics among patients in Moshi, Tanzania

Excessive alcohol use stands as a serious threat to individual and community well-being, having been linked to a wide array of physical, social, mental, and economic harms. Alcohol consumption differs by gender, a trend seen both globally and in Moshi, Tanzania, a region with especially high rates of intake and few resources for alcohol-related care. To develop effective gender-appropriate treatment interventions, differences in drinking behaviors between men and women must be better understood. Our study aims to identify and explore gender-based discrepancies in alcohol consumption among Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Center (KCMC) patients. A systematic random sampling of adult patients presenting to KCMC's Emergency Department (ED) or Reproductive Health Center (RHC) was conducted from October 2021 until May 2022. Patients answered demographic and alcohol use-related questions and completed brief surveys, including the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT). Through purposeful sampling, 19 individuals also participated in in-depth interviews (IDIs) that focused on identifying gender differences in alcohol use. Quantitative data was analyzed in RStudio through descriptive frequencies, proportions, ANOVA, and Chi-squared tests, while IDIs were analyzed in Nvivo following a grounded theory approach. During the 8-month data collection timeline, 676 patients were enrolled. Men and women patients at KCMC's ED and RHC were found to have significant differences in their alcohol use behaviors. For our quantitative data, this included lower average AUDIT scores among women (average [SD] AUDIT scores were 6.76 [8.16] among ED men, 3.07 [4.76] among ED women, and 1.86 [3.46] among RHC women). A subsequent IDI analysis revealed greater social restrictions around women's drinking and more secretive alcohol use behaviors for where and when women would drink. For men, excess drinking was normalized within Moshi, tied to men's social interactions with other men, and generally motivated by stress, social pressure, and despair over lack of opportunity. Significant gender differences in drinking behaviors were found, primarily influenced by sociocultural norms. These dissimilarities in alcohol use suggest that future alcohol-related programs should incorporate gender in their conceptualization and implementation.

A Mixed-Methods Comparison of Gender Differences in Alcohol Consumption and Drinking Characteristics among Patients in Moshi, Tanzania

Background

Excessive alcohol use stands as a serious threat to individual and community well-being, having been linked to a wide array of physical, social, mental, and economic harms. Alcohol consumption differs by gender, a trend seen both globally and in Moshi, Tanzania, a region with especially high rates of intake and few resources for alcohol-related care. To develop effective gender-appropriate treatment interventions, differences in drinking behaviors between men and women must be better understood. Our study aims to identify and explore gender-based discrepancies in alcohol consumption among Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Center (KCMC) patients.

Methods

A systematic random sampling of adult patients presenting to KCMC's Emergency Department (ED) or Reproductive Health Center (RHC) was conducted from October 2020 until May 2021. Patients answered demographic and alcohol use-related questions and completed brief surveys including the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT). Through purposeful sampling, 19 subjects also participated in in-depth interviews (IDIs) focused on identifying gender differences in alcohol use.

Results

During the 8-month data collection timeline, 655 patients were enrolled. Men and women patients at KCMC's ED and RHC were found to have significant differences in their alcohol use behaviors including lower rates of consumption among women, (average [SD] AUDIT scores were 6.76 [8.16] among ED men, 3.07 [4.76] among ED women, and 1.86 [3.46] among RHC women), greater social restrictions around women's drinking, and more secretive alcohol use behaviors for where and when women would drink. For men, excess drinking was normalized within Moshi, tied to men's social interactions with other men, and generally motivated by stress, social pressure, and despair over lack of opportunity.

Conclusion

Significant gender differences in drinking behaviors were found, primarily influenced by sociocultural norms. These dissimilarities in alcohol use suggest that future alcohol-related programs should incorporate gender in their conceptualization and implementation.

Utility of Family Reports in Predicting Emergency Department Patient Alcohol Use in Tanzania

OBJECTIVE

Myriad reasons, including stigma, may prevent patients from self-reporting harmful use of alcohol in Tanzania. Family members may be more forthright but might not know the extent of the patient's alcohol use or suffer alcohol-related stigma as well. Our study aims to compare the reporting of patient alcohol use by emergency department patients themselves and their family members in Tanzania in order to describe the potential use of family reports as a proxy for patient self-reports.

METHOD

We conducted a secondary descriptive analysis of a prospective cohort of adult patients seeking treatment for injury and their family members. We evaluated alcohol use behavior, alcohol-related consequences, and alcohol-related stigma reported by 231 patients and 231 family members (both majority male, ages 25-45 years), measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), Perceived Alcohol Stigma (PAS) scale, and the Drinker Inventory of Consequences (DrInC). Alcohol use behavior concordance/discordance between patients and families was established, and alcohol use and perceived stigma were analyzed.

RESULTS

More than 72% of patient-family pairs showed alcohol use (AUDIT) concordance. Receiver operating characteristic curve and regression analysis suggests family reports to be clinically relevant, significant, and potentially accurate markers of patient alcohol use (sensitivity: 95.10%, specificity: 69.77%). Findings support the existence of stigma toward alcohol in this context, with similar stigma levels of patients and family members.

CONCLUSIONS

Family-reported patient alcohol use may be an accurate proxy for patient self-reporting. Further research is needed into stigma toward alcohol that is culturally appropriate and adopted.