Treatment of cervical paragangliomas: is surgery the only way?

Role of neck dissections in the management of carotid body tumors

Objective

Carotid body tumors (CBTs) are rare neoplasms of the paraganglia at the carotid bifurcation. While typically benign, CBTs occasionally exhibit malignancy, metastasizing to nearby lymph nodes. Histopathologic analysis alone is insufficient to confirm malignancy, requiring metastases to non-neuroendocrine tissue for a definitive diagnosis. The role of selective neck dissections (SNDs) in detecting malignancy and guiding subsequent management remains uncertain.

Method

A retrospective case series through electronic chart review was performed on 21 patients undergoing CBT surgeries between 2002 and 2022 at a Canadian institution. SNDs were performed on all 21 patients. Data collection included patient demographics, genetic and laboratory testing results, preoperative imaging, intraoperative and postoperative complications, histologic analysis of neck SND and tumor specimen, and follow-up results.

Results

Of the 21 surgical resections, there were three cases (14.3%) of carotid artery injuries and six cases (28.6%) of nerve injuries. One patient (4.8%) experienced three intraoperative strokes. Three patients (14.3%) were found to have lymph node involvement, confirming malignancy, and underwent further treatment with radiotherapy. Interestingly, two patients with carotid injuries had malignant tumors, demonstrating a statistical significance between carotid injury and malignancy (OR 34.00, 95% CI: 1.48, 781.83, p = .041).

Conclusion

SNDs are a useful adjunct in detecting malignancy during CBT surgeries. The incidence of malignancy in CBT is low but not negligible, and SND should be considered in patients to prevent inadvertent underdetection of metastatic disease. This study's 14.3% incidence of malignancy suggests that there may be a rationale for considering the universal implementation of SND during CBT resections.

Level of Evidence

4.

Predictors for postoperative cranial nerve complications in carotid body tumor resection: a retrospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Carotid body tumors (CBTs) are slow-growing benign tumors. Therefore, surgical resection is considered in case of tumor growth. The timing of surgery is of the utmost importance as the risk of iatrogenic surgical complications increases when resecting larger tumors, whereas on the other hand, resections for asymptomatic small CBT should be prevented. The primary aim of this study was to identify which tumor size or dimension is most accurate to predict nerve injury in patients undergoing resection of a CBT.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included patients who underwent surgical resection of CBT at the university hospital in South-Holland. Baseline patient characteristics and tumor measurements were retrieved from the medical records. The authors assessed how the different methods of measuring the size of the tumor were interrelated using Pearson correlation. Logistic regression was used to assess which variables were independently associated with nerve injury, including age at surgery, Shamblin classification, and those dimensions that captured different aspects of tumor size (rather than measuring the same as shown by high correlations) as possible independent variables.

RESULTS

In 125 patients, 143 CBTs were resected whereof in 35 cases cranial nerve injury occurred, (transient in 16 cases and permanent in 19 cases). The risks for nerve injury increased with larger tumor size and the Shamblin classification. Logistic regression analysis showed that the anterior-posterior (AP) diameter significantly increased the odds of a nerve injury, a doubling for every 1 cm increase in AP diameter [odds ratio (95% CI) 2.12 (1.29-3.48), P =0.003].

CONCLUSION

This study shows that measured tumor size in the AP plane is a strong predictor for postoperative nerve injury of a CBT resection. This predictor can be used in the daily clinic to give insight in operative risks. More research is needed in order to select the most appropriate time window for CBT resection.

Microsurgical treatment of carotid body tumors using periadventitial dissection: Analysis of outcomes and prognostic factors in a neurological referral center

Background:

Surgical resection for carotid body tumors (CBTs) is the gold standard of treatment and continues to be a challenging procedure, commonly associated with high vascular injury rates and neurological complications.

Methods:

It is a retrospective case series study between January 2002 and November 2020, with a mean follow-up of 29 months in a single nationwide referral center. Thirty-one patients diagnosed with a carotid body tumor and treated with microsurgical periadventitial resection were included in the study. Patients’ demographics, comorbidities, clinical, radiological factors, and tumor grade, evaluated by the Shamblin scale, were obtained. Statistical analysis was performed on all collected data.

Results:

In this study, we included 31 patients (32 tumors), 80% of the patients were female, and 20% were male, with a mean age of 53 years. One patient presented with bilateral lesions, while 17 tumors were located on the left side. The most frequent symptom was a painless, slow-growing neck mass in 74% of patients. Using the Shamblin classification, 13% of tumors were Grade I, 53% Grade II, and 34% Grade III. In the postoperative period, 3% of patients presented with permanent cranial nerve deficit, while none had vascular injuries or postoperative stroke. A tumor >5 cm increased the risk for nerve lesion by 11 times (OR 12.6, CI 95% 7.4-11.4, P < 0.001).

Conclusion:

Preoperative embolization followed by periadventitial resection by means of a microsurgical technique is a safe and effective approach to remove CBT, with 3% cranial nerve injury rate and no need for vascular sacrifice or reconstruction.

Paragangliomas of the head and neck

Paragangliomas are rare neuroendocrine tumors that can be found from the skull base to the pelvis. Head and neck paragangliomas have been historically treated with surgery. However, surgical resection adds risk of injury to vascular structures and cranial nerves that can lead to morbidity such as hoarseness, dysarthria, dysphagia, or aspiration. Recently, improved understanding of the behavior of these tumors and increasing experience in non-surgical treatments such as observation and radiation therapy, have changed the paradigms of management of this entity. Multiple series now show a trend towards a more conservative management, with a higher percentage of patients being observed or treated with radiotherapy. Several factors should be taken into consideration when deciding the most appropriate treatment for head and neck paragangliomas, starting by differentiating carotid body tumors from non- carotid body tumors. In general, surgical resection is normally recommended for carotid body tumors as the complications from treatment are usually minimal. In contrast, for non- carotid body tumors, surgery is often associated with significant functional impairment due to cranial nerve paralysis. As such, non-surgical treatment is now usually recommended for this subset of head and neck paragangliomas. In young patients with no comorbidities and a small to medium carotid body tumors, surgery should be considered. Moreover, surgery should be offered for secreting tumors, malignant tumors, tumors with rapid growth or increase in symptomatology, and when radiotherapy cannot be performed. Conversely, conservative management with active surveillance or radiotherapy can be offered in the remaining cases in order to avoid unnecessary morbidity while still providing acceptable tumor control.

Neurosurgical management of perineural metastases: A case series and review of the literature

Background:

Perineural invasion (PNI) and spread are one of the grimmest prognostic factors associated with primary skin and head-and-neck cancers, yet remain an often confused, and underreported, phenomenon. Adding complexity to reaching a diagnosis and treating perineural spread (PNS) is the finding that patients may have no known primary tumor, history of skin cancer, and/or incidental PNI in the primary tumor. These delays in diagnosis and treatment are further compounded by an already slow disease process and often require multidisciplinary care with combinations of stereotactic radiosurgery, surgical resection, and novel treatments such as checkpoint inhibitors.

Methods:

Six patients with metastatic cancer to the cranial nerves who underwent Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) treatment were chosen for retrospective analysis. This information included age, gender, any past surgeries (both stereotactic and regular surgery), dose of radiation and volume of the tumor treated in the GKRS, date of PNS, comorbidities, the patient follow-up, and pre- and post-GKRS imaging. The goal of the follow-up with radiographing imaging was to assess the efficacy of GKSS.

Results:

The clinical course of six patients with PNS is presented. Patients followed variable courses with mixed outcomes: two patients remain living, one was lost to follow-up, and three expired with a median survival of 12 months from date of diagnosis. Patients at our institution are ideally followed for life.

Conclusion:

Given the morbidity and mortality of PNS of cancer, time is limited, and further understanding is required to improve outcomes. Here, we provide a case series of patients with PNS treated with stereotactic radiosurgery, discuss their clinical courses, and review the known literature.

Identifying Factors Influencing Decision Making in Patients Diagnosed with Carotid Body Tumors: An Exploratory Study

BACKGROUND

Carotid body tumors (CBTs) are rare highly vascularized and slow enlarging tumors arising from the paraganglionic tissue at the carotid bifurcation. Main treatment options for CBTs are surgical resection or "wait and scan" strategy. The choice for either strategy may be equally good medically in many patients. A structured "shared decision making" (SDM) might be helpful for guiding patients.

OBJECTIVES

To develop an SDM strategy for the surgical treatment, we aim to (1) identify considerations and factors involved in the decision making of patients with CBTs and (2) evaluate the current practice in our clinic and explore the opinions of patients on their treatment.

METHODS

This exploratory study was conducted in patients of the Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), The Netherlands. Patients who met the inclusion criteria were invited for a semi-structured interview. All conversations were fully audiotaped and transcripted.

RESULTS

Fifteen patients were included and interviewed. Ten of these patients underwent previously surgical resection of at least one tumor. Five patients underwent the wait and scan policy. The most important factors influencing decision making in CBT treatment are family, fears, co-consultants, and doctor-patient relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has identified the factors influencing decision making in CBT and should be considered during consultations. The decision for surgery or not was mainly influenced by physician preferences and family members' prior experiences.

Head and neck paragangliomas: 30-year experience

BACKGROUND

We aimed to review our experience and the changing trends in the management of head and neck paragangliomas (HNPG) over the last three decades.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 103 patients with HNPG treated at our center (1986-2017). We included patients treated with surgery, radiotherapy, and patients maintained under active surveillance.

RESULTS

Of the surgically treated patients (n = 79), 20% (12/59) of the carotid body tumors (CBT) had a cranial nerve deficit as sequela compared to 95% (19/20) of the non-CBT. Radiotherapy controlled growth in all tumors treated with this modality (n = 10). Of the initially observed patients, 70% (14/20) remained stable and did not require additional treatment. Stratifying by decades, there was a progressive increase in patients initially attempted to be observed and a decrease in upfront surgery. No deaths attributable to the HNPG were encountered.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgery is an effective treatment for CBT. Nonsurgical treatment should be considered for non-CBT.

Stereotactic radiosurgery for head and neck paragangliomas: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Head and neck paragangliomas (HNPs) are rare, usually benign hyper vascularized neuroendocrine tumors that traditionally have been treated by surgery, with or without endovascular embolization, or, more recently stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS). The aim of our study is to determine the clinical and radiographic effectiveness of SRS for treatment of HNPs. A systematic search of electronic databases was performed, and 37 articles reporting 11,174 patients (1144 tumors) with glomus jugulare (GJT: 993, 86.9%), glomus tympanicum (GTT: 94, 8.2%), carotid body tumors (CBTs: 28, 2.4%), and glomus vagale (GVT: 16, 1.4%) treated with SRS definitively or adjuvantly were included. The local control (LC) was estimated from the pooled analysis of the series, and its association with SRS technique as well as demographic and clinical factors was analyzed. The median age was 56 years (44-69 years). With a median clinical and radiological follow-up of 44 months (9-161 months), LC was 94.2%. Majority of the patients (61.0%) underwent Gamma Knife Radiosurgery (GKS), but there was no statistically significant difference in LC depending upon the SRS technique (p = 0.9). Spearmen's correlation showed that LC was strongly and negatively correlated with multiple parameters, which included female gender (r = - 0.4, p = 0.001), right-sided tumor (r = - 0.3, p = 0.03), primary SRS (r = - 0.5, p ≤ 0.001), and initial clinical presentation of hearing loss (r = - 0.4, p = 0.001). To achieve a LC ≥ 90%, a median marginal dose (Gy) of 15 (range, 12-30 Gy) was required. The results corroborate that SRS in HNPs is associated with good clinical and radiological outcome.

Hypofractionated Robotic Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Vagal Paragangliomas: A Novel Treatment Strategy for Cranial Nerve Preservation

OBJECTIVE

To provide the first description of hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and evaluate tumor control and safety for vagal paragangliomas (VPs), which begin at the skull base but often have significant extracranial extension.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective chart review.

SETTING

Tertiary-referral neurotology and neurosurgery practice.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Five VPs in 4 patients (all male, ages 15-56 years) underwent SRS between 2010 and 2018. Outcome measures included tumor dimensions on serial imaging, cranial nerve function, and radiation side effects.

RESULTS

CyberKnife hypofractionated SRS was performed. The prescription dose was 24 or 27 Gy (maximum dose 33.4 Gy; range, 29.3-35.5 Gy) delivered in 3 equal fractions. The mean isodose line was 79% (range, 76%-82%). Four VPs were treated primarily, and 1 tumor underwent SRS to treat regrowth 2 years after microsurgical subtotal resection via the modified infratemporal fossa approach. The treatment volume ranged from 8.81 to 86.3 cm³ (mean, 35.7 cm³). All demonstrated stable size (n = 3) or regression (n = 2) at last follow-up, 63 to 85 months after SRS (mean, 76 months). One patient had stable premorbid vocal fold paralysis from a prior ipsilateral glomus jugulare tumor resection. All others demonstrated normal vagal function following SRS. Treatment-related side effects, including dysgeusia (n = 1), mucositis (n = 1), and neck soft-tissue edema (n = 2), were self-limited.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypofractionated SRS appears to be both safe and effective for treating VPs, including large-volume and predominantly extracranial tumors, while preserving vagal function. SRS should be considered as a cranial nerve preservation option, especially in settings of contralateral lower cranial nerve deficits or in those with multiple paragangliomas risking both vagal nerves.

Diagnosis and surgical treatment of carotid body tumor: A retrospective analysis of 58 patients

The aim of the present study was to illustrate the diagnosis and treatment of carotid body tumor (CBT) based on our experience of previous patients. A total of 58 patients (62 lesions) with CBT who received surgery between October 2003 and October 2013 were included. In total, 17 lesions were categorized into Shamblin grade I, 33 were grade II, and 12 were grade III. Surgical resection of CBT was performed for 52 lesions, resection of CBT and the external carotid artery was performed for 9 lesions, and resection of CBT and the internal carotid artery was performed for 1 lesion. No hemiplegia was observed. Hoarseness and bucking were observed in 2 patients of Shamblin grade III, and were eliminated 1 month subsequent to the administration of hormone therapy and a nerve-nurturing strategy. No relapse or mortality was observed during the follow-up. In conclusion, surgical resection of CBT is recommended following diagnosis. The evaluation of imaging features and cerebral collateral circulation is important for treatment.

[Head and neck paragangliomas: An interdisciplinary challenge]

BACKGROUND

Current treatment strategies for head and neck paragangliomas are moving away from radical resection and toward surgical tumor reduction, in order to preserve function and reduce morbidity. Radiotherapy modalities are alternative primary treatment options.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A PubMed search of the relevant literature on genetics and treatment of head and neck paragangliomas was conducted.

RESULTS

The rapid progress made in genetic research was mainly triggered by two factors: firstly, the establishment of central registries for paraganglioma patients and secondly, the availability of next-generation sequencing methods. Exome sequencing and a gene-panel sequencing approach have already been successfully applied to paraganglioma syndromes. The latter method in particular is rapid and cost-effective, and may soon replace complex genotyping algorithms. The literature provides good evidence that diversified modern treatment options are available to realize individual treatment concepts for almost all paraganglioma manifestations. Generally, small and symptomatic tumors should be completely resected, particularly in younger patients. Considering the patient's age, symptoms, morbidity risk, and comorbidities, larger tumors should be surgically treated in a function-preserving manner. In these cases, primary radiotherapy is an equivalent alternative option. A "wait and scan" strategy is possible in selected cases.

DISCUSSION

The potential morbidity of surgical treatment must be weighed against the expectable quality of life. Comprehensive consultation with the patient about possible treatment modalities is mandatory. Treatment decision making should involve a multidisciplinary team of experts.

Primary thyroid paraganglioma mimicking medullary thyroid carcinoma: A case report

Primary thyroid paraganglioma (TP) is an uncommon tumor, and in rare cases, this disease tends to mimic medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC). The present study reports a rare case of primary TP mimicking thyroid carcinoma, accompanied by hyperthyroidism. A 30-year-old female presented with an anterior cervical mass. Pre-operative radiological studies and operative frozen section analysis indicated an atypical MTC. Primary TP was finally diagnosed by pathology and immunohistochemical staining. Laboratory examinations (thyroid hormones tests) and Tc99m emission computed tomography revealed hyperthyroidism. Gene analysis of TP-associated gene mutations was negative. Surgical resection was performed as a curative approach and there is currently no metastasis after 36 months of follow-up. Surgeons must be aware of this disease in order to ensure a correct diagnosis and to prevent them from performing unnecessary procedures. The current study presents a case of primary TP mimicking MTC, discusses the radiographic results and histological characteristics, and provides a review of the associated literature.

Experiences in the treatment of patients with multiple head and neck paragangliomas

PURPOSE

To analyze treatment results in the multidisciplinary management of patients with multiple head and neck paragangliomas (HNPs).

METHODS

Retrospective analysis including all patients with multiple HNPs (VP, vagal paraganglioma; JTP, jugulotympanic paraganglioma; CBT, carotid body tumor) treated between 2000 and 2013 at a tertiary referral center.

RESULTS

Ten patients (three men, seven women) had 25 HNPs (two VPs, eight JTPs, and 15 CBTs). The age range at diagnosis was 31-71 years (mean 40.9 years, median 37 years). Nine tumors (four CBTs, three JTPs, two VPs) were treated only with stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT; 50.4-56Gy, mean 55.3Gy) or in one case intensity-modulated radiotherapy (60 Gy). Nine tumors were treated with surgery alone (eight CBTs, one JTP) and three JTPs with subtotal surgery combined with adjuvant SRT. A "wait and scan" strategy was used in three cases (two CBTs, one JTP). The mean follow-up period was 4.3 years (range 0.1-13 years, median 4 years). The rate of tumor control with surgery and/or SRT was 100% (21/21). One patient with a wait-and-scan strategy for CBT had slow asymptomatic progression during a 13-year follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The treatment results in this series of patients with multiple HNPs show that a very high rate of long-term tumor control with low morbidity can be achieved using tailored and individualized approaches. All of the different treatment strategies available should be discussed with the patient. In particular, the treatment should involve a multidisciplinary team of experts in the fields of nuclear medicine, genetics, pathology, radiology, radio-oncology, and surgery.