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Lambo MT, Ma H, Liu R, Dai B, Zhang Y, Li Y. Review: Mechanism, effectiveness, and the prospects of medicinal plants and their bioactive compounds in lowering ruminants' enteric methane emission. Animal 2024; 18:101134. [PMID: 38593679 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2024.101134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Animal nutritionists continue to investigate new strategies to combat the challenge of methane emissions from ruminants. Medicinal plants (MPs) are known to be beneficial to animal health and exert functional roles in livestock due to their phytogenic compounds with antimicrobial, immunostimulatory, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory activities. Some MP has been reported to be anti-methanogenic and can effectively lower ruminants' enteric methane emissions. This review overviews trends in MP utilization in ruminants, their bioactivity and their effectiveness in lowering enteric methane production. It highlights the MP regulatory mechanism and the gaps that must be critically addressed to improve its efficacy. MP could reduce enteric methane production by up to 8-50% by regulating the rumen fermentation pathway, directing hydrogen toward propionogenesis, and modifying rumen diversity, structure, and population of the methanogens and protozoa. Yet, factors such as palatability, extraction techniques, and economic implications must be further considered to exploit their potential fully.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T Lambo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - H Ma
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - R Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - B Dai
- College of Electrical Engineering and Information, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Y Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Y Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
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Yu S, Zhao Y, Li L, Zhao H, Liu M, Jiang L. Flavonoids from citrus peel display potential synergistic effects on inhibiting rumen methanogenesis and ammoniagenesis: a microbiome perspective. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:21208-21223. [PMID: 38383931 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-32509-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Flavonoids have been recognized as potential phytochemicals to reduce enteric methane (CH4) production and improve rumen nitrogen efficiency in ruminants. We evaluated whether naringin, hesperidin, their combination, or a mixed citrus flavonoid extract (CFE) as additives can inhibit methanogenesis and ammoniagenesis in dairy cows using an in vitro rumen batch refermentation system. The rumen inocula from dairy cows were incubated in batch cultures with five groups: no addition (CON), hesperidin (20 g/kg DM), naringin (20 g/kg DM), hesperidin + naringin (10 g/kg DM of hesperidin + 10 g/kg DM of naringin), and CFE (20 g/kg DM). The combination of naringin plus hesperidin and CFE achieved greater reductions in CH4 and ammonia production compared to either naringin or hesperidin alone. Microbiome analysis revealed that the decrease in CH4 emissions may have been caused by both the direct inhibitory impact of citrus flavonoids on Methanobrevibacter and a simultaneous decrease in protozoa Isotricha abundance. The relatively lower proportion of Entodinium in naringin plus hesperidin or CFE was responsible for the lower ammonia concentration. These results suggest that citrus flavonoids possess potential synergistic effects on mitigating ruminal CH4 emissions by cows and improving nitrogen utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqiang Yu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Dairy Cow Nutrition, Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, No.7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
- Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Microbiology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Nutrition and Animal Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Yuchao Zhao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Dairy Cow Nutrition, Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, No.7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Liuxue Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Dairy Cow Nutrition, Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, No.7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Huiying Zhao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Dairy Cow Nutrition, Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, No.7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Ming Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Dairy Cow Nutrition, Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, No.7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Linshu Jiang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Dairy Cow Nutrition, Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, No.7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China.
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Alayón-Gamboa JA, Albores-Moreno S, Jiménez-Ferrer G, Alarcón-Zúñiga B, Miranda-Romero LA, Pérez-Luna EJ, Canul-Solís J. Tropical tree foliage supplementation in ruminants improves rumen fermentation and the bacterial profile and decreases methane production. Anim Biotechnol 2023; 34:4510-4522. [PMID: 36639141 DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2023.2165935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The main of this study was to evaluate the effect of supplementation of tropical tree foliage in ruminant diets on the in vitro fermentation, bacterial population, volatile fatty acids (VFAs), and enteric CH4 production. Seven experimental diets were evaluated: a control treatment of Pennisetum purpureum (T7) and six treatments of P. purpureum supplemented (30%) with the foliage of Neomillspaughia emargiata (T1), Tabernaemontana amygdalifolia (T2), Caesalpinia gaumeri (T3), Piscidia piscipula (T4), Leucaena leucocephala (T5), and Havardia albicans (T6). The T2, T7, and T5 treatments had the highest (p < 0.05) digestibility of dry matter. Overall, supplementation increased (p < 0.05) the concentrations of propionic and butyric acid and decreased acetic acid. Methanogenic bacteria decreased (p < 0.05) in T1, T2, T5, and T6. Ruminococcus albus decreased in T1, T2, T3, and T5 and Selenomonas ruminiantum increased in T3. Fibrobacter succinogenes increased, except in T5. Methane production decreased (p < 0.05) in T1, T4, T5, and T6. The supplementation with Leucaena leucocephala, Tabernaemontana amygdalifolia, Neomillspaughia emargiata, Piscidia piscipula, Havardia albicans, and Caesalpinia gaumeri is a potential alternative nutritional strategy for ruminants that results in positive changes in VFAs profile, a decrease on CH4 production and methanogenic bacteria, and changes on fibrolytic and non-fibrolytic bacteria composition.HIGHLIGHTSTropical tree foliage supplementation increased propionic and butyric acid and decreased acetic acid concentrations.Fibrolytic, non-fibrolytic, and Methanogenic bacteria were selectively modulated with the supplementation of tropical tree foliage.The enteric methane (CH4) production decreased with the supplementation of tree foliage.The supplementation of Tabernaemontana amygdalifolia and Leucaena leucocephala had the highest digestibility and is a potential alternative nutritional strategy for ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - B Alarcón-Zúñiga
- Graduate Department of Animal Production, Autonomous University of Chapingo, Chapingo, Mexico
| | - L A Miranda-Romero
- Graduate Department of Animal Production, Autonomous University of Chapingo, Chapingo, Mexico
| | - E J Pérez-Luna
- Faculty of Agronomic Sciences C-V, Autonomous University of Chiapas, Villaflores, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - J Canul-Solís
- National Technological Institute of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tizimín, Tizimín, Mexico
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Benchaar C, Hassanat F, Côrtes C. Assessment of the Effects of Commercial or Locally Engineered Biochars Produced from Different Biomass Sources and Differing in Their Physical and Chemical Properties on Rumen Fermentation and Methane Production In Vitro. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3280. [PMID: 37894004 PMCID: PMC10603727 DOI: 10.3390/ani13203280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, interest in using biochar as feed additives to mitigate enteric methane (CH4) emissions from ruminants has increased. It has been suggested that the mitigating potential of biochar is influenced by its physical (e.g., porosity-related) and chemical (e.g., redox-potential-related) properties. Thus, the aim of this in vitro study was to evaluate the effects of commercial or locally engineered biochars, produced from different biomass sources and differing in their physical and chemical characteristics, on rumen fermentation and CH4 production. For this purpose, a 24 h batch culture of ruminal fluid incubations was conducted in a complete randomized block design (repeated three times) that included a negative control (no additive), a positive control (monensin, 10 mg/mL), and four commercial and three locally engineered biochars, each evaluated at 1%, 2%, or 5% of the substrate's (i.e., the total mixed ration) dry matter. The evaluated biochars greatly differ in their chemical (i.e., moisture, ash, pH, redox potential, volatiles, carbon, fixed carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur) and physical (i.e., fine particles < 250 µm, bulk density, true density, porosity, electrical conductivity, specific surface area, and absorbed CO2) properties. Despite these differences and compared with the negative control, none of the biochars evaluated (regardless of the inclusion rate) influenced gas and CH4 production, volatile fatty acid characteristics (total concentration and profile), or ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) concentrations. As expected, monensin (i.e., the positive control) decreased (p < 0.05) CH4 production mainly because of a decreased (p < 0.05) acetate-to-propionate ratio. The results of this study reveal that despite the large differences in the physical and chemical properties of the biochars evaluated, their inclusion at different rates in vitro failed to modify rumen fermentation and decrease CH4 production. Based on these in vitro findings, it was concluded that biochar does not represent a viable strategy for mitigating enteric CH4 emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaouki Benchaar
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Sherbrooke Research and Development Centre, Sherbrooke, QC J1M 0C8, Canada
| | - Fadi Hassanat
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Quebec Research and Development Centre, Quebec, QC G1V 2J3, Canada;
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Teobaldo RW, Granja-Salcedo YT, Cardoso ADS, Constancio MTL, Brito TR, Romanzini EP, Reis RA. The Impact of Mineral and Energy Supplementation and Phytogenic Compounds on Rumen Microbial Diversity and Nitrogen Utilization in Grazing Beef Cattle. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11030810. [PMID: 36985382 PMCID: PMC10051884 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the addition of a phytogenic compound blend (PHA) containing hydrolyzable tannins, carvacrol, and cinnamaldehyde oil to mineral salt or energy supplementation on the rumen microbiota and nitrogen metabolism of grazing Nellore cattle. Eight castrated Nellore steers were distributed in a double-Latin-square 4 × 4 design, with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (two types of supplements with or without the addition of the PHA), as follows: energy supplement without the PHA addition (EW); energy supplement with the PHA addition (EPHA); mineral supplement without the addition of the PHA (MW); mineral supplement with the PHA addition (MPHA). Steers that received supplements with the PHA have a lower ruminal proportion of valerate (with the PHA, 1.06%; without the PHA, 1.15%), a lower ruminal abundance of Verrucomicrobia, and a tendency for lower DM digestibility (with the PHA, 62.8%; without the PHA, 64.8%). Energy supplements allowed for higher ammonia concentrations (+2.28 mg of NH3-N/dL), increased the propionate proportion (+0.29% of total VFA), and had a higher ruminal abundance of Proteobacteria and Spirochaetae phyla in the rumen. The PHA addition in the supplement did not improve nitrogen retention, reduced the ruminal proportion of valerate, and had a negative impact on both the total dry-matter digestibility and the abundance of several ruminal bacterial groups belonging to the Firmicutes and Verrucomicrobia phyla.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronyatta Weich Teobaldo
- Department of Animal Science, São Paulo State University "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" (UNESP), Jaboticabal 14887-900, Brazil
| | - Yury Tatiana Granja-Salcedo
- Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (AGROSAVIA), Centro de Investigación El Nus, San Roque 053030, Colombia
| | | | | | - Thais Ribeiro Brito
- Department of Animal Science, São Paulo State University "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" (UNESP), Jaboticabal 14887-900, Brazil
| | - Eliéder Prates Romanzini
- Department of Animal Science, São Paulo State University "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" (UNESP), Jaboticabal 14887-900, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Andrade Reis
- Department of Animal Science, São Paulo State University "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" (UNESP), Jaboticabal 14887-900, Brazil
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Formato M, Vastolo A, Piccolella S, Calabrò S, Cutrignelli MI, Zidorn C, Pacifico S. Castanea sativa Mill. Leaf: UHPLC-HR MS/MS Analysis and Effects on In Vitro Rumen Fermentation and Methanogenesis. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27248662. [PMID: 36557796 PMCID: PMC9785889 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Castanea sativa Mill. (Fagaceae) is a deciduous tree grown for its wood and edible fruits. Chestnut processing produces residues (burs, shells, and leaves) exploitable for their diversity in bioactive compounds in animal nutrition. In fact, plant-specialized metabolites likely act as rumen modifiers. Thus, the recovery of residual plant parts as feed ingredients is an evaluable strategy. In this context, European chestnut leaves from northern Germany have been investigated, proving to be a good source of flavonoids as well as gallo- and ellagitannins. To this purpose, an alcoholic extract was obtained and an untargeted profiling carried out, mainly by means of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR MS/MS) techniques. To better unravel the polyphenol constituents, fractionation strategies were employed to obtain a lipophilic fraction and a polar one. This latter was highly responsive to total phenolic and flavonoid content analyses, as well as to antiradical (DPPH● and ABTS+●) and reducing activity (PFRAP) assays. The effect of the alcoholic extract and its fractions on rumen liquor was also evaluated in vitro in terms of fermentative parameter changes and impact on methanogenesis. The data acquired confirm that chestnut leaf extract and the fractions therefrom promote an increase in total volatile fatty acids, while decreasing acetate/propionate ratio and CH4 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marialuisa Formato
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Alessandro Vastolo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Via Federico Delpino 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Simona Piccolella
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Serena Calabrò
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Via Federico Delpino 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Monica Isabella Cutrignelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Via Federico Delpino 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Christian Zidorn
- Pharmazeutisches Institut, Abteilung Pharmazeutische Biologie, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Gutenbergstraße 76, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Severina Pacifico
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Trautmann A, Schleicher L, Pfirrmann J, Boldt C, Steuber J, Seifert J. Na +-Coupled Respiration and Reshaping of Extracellular Polysaccharide Layer Counteract Monensin-Induced Cation Permeability in Prevotella bryantii B 14. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910202. [PMID: 34638543 PMCID: PMC8508442 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Monensin is an ionophore for monovalent cations, which is frequently used to prevent ketosis and to enhance performance in dairy cows. Studies have shown the rumen bacteria Prevotella bryantii B14 being less affected by monensin. The present study aimed to reveal more information about the respective molecular mechanisms in P.bryantii, as there is still a lack of knowledge about defense mechanisms against monensin. Cell growth experiments applying increasing concentrations of monensin and incubations up to 72 h were done. Harvested cells were used for label-free quantitative proteomics, enzyme activity measurements, quantification of intracellular sodium and extracellular glucose concentrations and fluorescence microscopy. Our findings confirmed an active cell growth and fermentation activity of P.bryantii B14 despite monensin concentrations up to 60 µM. An elevated abundance and activity of the Na+-translocating NADH:quinone oxidoreductase counteracted sodium influx caused by monensin. Cell membranes and extracellular polysaccharides were highly influenced by monensin indicated by a reduced number of outer membrane proteins, an increased number of certain glucoside hydrolases and an elevated concentration of extracellular glucose. Thus, a reconstruction of extracellular polysaccharides in P.bryantii in response to monensin is proposed, which is expected to have a negative impact on the substrate binding capacities of this rumen bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrej Trautmann
- HoLMiR-Hohenheim Center for Livestock Microbiome Research, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (A.T.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Lena Schleicher
- HoLMiR-Hohenheim Center for Livestock Microbiome Research, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (A.T.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
- Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jana Pfirrmann
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Christin Boldt
- Institute of Bioscience, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 09599 Freiberg, Germany;
| | - Julia Steuber
- HoLMiR-Hohenheim Center for Livestock Microbiome Research, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (A.T.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
- Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jana Seifert
- HoLMiR-Hohenheim Center for Livestock Microbiome Research, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (A.T.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-0711-459-24284
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Menci R, Coppa M, Torrent A, Natalello A, Valenti B, Luciano G, Priolo A, Niderkorn V. Effects of two tannin extracts at different doses in interaction with a green or dry forage substrate on in vitro rumen fermentation and biohydrogenation. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.114977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Toro-Mujica P, González-Ronquillo M. Editorial: Feeding and Nutritional Strategies to Reduce Livestock Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:717426. [PMID: 34277759 PMCID: PMC8282890 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.717426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Paula Toro-Mujica
- Instituto de Ciencias Agroalimentarias, Animales y Ambientales, Universidad de O'Higgins, San Fernando, Chile
| | - Manuel González-Ronquillo
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Toluca, Mexico
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Sun K, Liu H, Fan H, Liu T, Zheng C. Research progress on the application of feed additives in ruminal methane emission reduction: a review. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11151. [PMID: 33850664 PMCID: PMC8019312 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ruminal methane (CH4) emissions from ruminants not only pollute the environment and exacerbate the greenhouse effect, but also cause animal energy losses and low production efficiency. Consequently, it is necessary to find ways of reducing methane emissions in ruminants. Studies have reported that feed additives such as nitrogen-containing compounds, probiotics, prebiotics, and plant extracts significantly reduce ruminant methane; however, systematic reviews of such studies are lacking. The present article summarizes research over the past five years on the effects of nitrogen-containing compounds, probiotics, probiotics, and plant extracts on methane emissions in ruminants. The paper could provide theoretical support and guide future research in animal production and global warming mitigation. METHODS This review uses the Web of Science database to search keywords related to ruminants and methane reduction in the past five years, and uses Sci-Hub, PubMed, etc. as auxiliary searchers. Read, filter, list, and summarize all the retrieved documents, and finally complete this article. RESULTS Most of the extracts can not only significantly reduce CH4 greenhouse gas emissions, but they will not cause negative effects on animal and human health either. Therefore, this article reviews the mechanisms of CH4 production in ruminants and the application and effects of N-containing compounds, probiotics, prebiotics, and plant extracts on CH4 emission reduction in ruminants based on published studies over the past 5 years. CONCLUSION Our review provides a theoretical basis for future research and the application of feed additives in ruminant CH4 emission reduction activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Huihui Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Huiyu Fan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ting Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Chen Zheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
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Wang Y, Yu S, Li Y, Zhang S, Qi X, Guo K, Guo Y, Fortina R. Pilot Study of the Effects of Polyphenols from Chestnut Involucre on Methane Production, Volatile Fatty Acids, and Ammonia Concentration during In Vitro Rumen Fermentation. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:E108. [PMID: 33430307 PMCID: PMC7825775 DOI: 10.3390/ani11010108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional strategies can be employed to mitigate greenhouse emissions from ruminants. This article investigates the effects of polyphenols extracted from the involucres of Castanea mollissima Blume (PICB) on in vitro rumen fermentation. Three healthy Angus bulls (350 ± 50 kg), with permanent rumen fistula, were used as the donors of rumen fluids. A basic diet was supplemented with five doses of PICB (0%-0.5% dry matter (DM)), replicated thrice for each dose. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs), ammonia nitrogen concentration (NH3-N), and methane (CH4) yield were measured after 24 h of in vitro fermentation, and gas production was monitored for 96 h. The trial was carried out over three runs. The results showed that the addition of PICB significantly reduced NH3-N (p < 0.05) compared to control. The 0.1%-0.4% PICB significantly decreased acetic acid content (p < 0.05). Addition of 0.2% and 0.3% PICB significantly increased the propionic acid content (p < 0.05) and reduced the acetic acid/propionic acid ratio, CH4 content, and yield (p < 0.05). A highly significant quadratic response was shown, with increasing PICB levels for all the parameters abovementioned (p < 0.01). The increases in PICB concentration resulted in a highly significant linear and quadratic response by 96-h dynamic fermentation parameters (p < 0.01). Our results indicate that 0.2% PICB had the best effect on in-vitro rumen fermentation efficiency and reduced greenhouse gas production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichong Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Sijiong Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Yang Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Shuang Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Xiaolong Qi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Kaijun Guo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Yong Guo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.)
| | - Riccardo Fortina
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari, Università degli Studi di Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, TO 10095, Italy
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Hassan FU, Arshad MA, Ebeid HM, Rehman MSU, Khan MS, Shahid S, Yang C. Phytogenic Additives Can Modulate Rumen Microbiome to Mediate Fermentation Kinetics and Methanogenesis Through Exploiting Diet-Microbe Interaction. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:575801. [PMID: 33263013 PMCID: PMC7688522 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.575801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ruminants inhabit the consortia of gut microbes that play a critical functional role in their maintenance and nourishment by enabling them to use cellulosic and non-cellulosic feed material. These gut microbes perform major physiological activities, including digestion and metabolism of dietary components, to derive energy to meet major protein (65-85%) and energy (ca 80%) requirements of the host. Owing to their contribution to digestive physiology, rumen microbes are considered one of the crucial factors affecting feed conversion efficiency in ruminants. Any change in the rumen microbiome has an imperative effect on animal physiology. Ruminal microbes are fundamentally anaerobic and produce various compounds during rumen fermentation, which are directly used by the host or other microbes. Methane (CH4) is produced by methanogens through utilizing metabolic hydrogen during rumen fermentation. Maximizing the flow of metabolic hydrogen in the rumen away from CH4 and toward volatile fatty acids (VFA) would increase the efficiency of ruminant production and decrease its environmental impact. Understanding of microbial diversity and rumen dynamics is not only crucial for the optimization of host efficiency but also required to mediate emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from ruminants. There are various strategies to modulate the rumen microbiome, mainly including dietary interventions and the use of different feed additives. Phytogenic feed additives, mainly plant secondary compounds, have been shown to modulate rumen microflora and change rumen fermentation dynamics leading to enhanced animal performance. Many in vitro and in vivo studies aimed to evaluate the use of plant secondary metabolites in ruminants have been conducted using different plants or their extract or essential oils. This review specifically aims to provide insights into dietary interactions of rumen microbes and their subsequent consequences on rumen fermentation. Moreover, a comprehensive overview of the modulation of rumen microbiome by using phytogenic compounds (essential oils, saponins, and tannins) for manipulating rumen dynamics to mediate CH4 emanation from livestock is presented. We have also discussed the pros and cons of each strategy along with future prospective of dietary modulation of rumen microbiome to improve the performance of ruminants while decreasing GHG emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faiz-ul Hassan
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, China
- Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Adeel Arshad
- Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Hossam M. Ebeid
- Dairy Science Department, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
| | - Muhammad Saif-ur Rehman
- Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Sajjad Khan
- Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Shehryaar Shahid
- Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Chengjian Yang
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, China
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Ma T, Wu W, Tu Y, Zhang N, Diao Q. Resveratrol affects in vitro rumen fermentation, methane production and prokaryotic community composition in a time- and diet-specific manner. Microb Biotechnol 2020; 13:1118-1131. [PMID: 32297431 PMCID: PMC7264885 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effect of resveratrol on methane production, rumen fermentation and microbial composition under high-concentrate (HC) and high-forage (HF) diets using the in vitro fermentation system. A total of 25 mg of resveratrol was supplemented into 300 mg of either HC or HF diet. Methane production, total volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration, molar proportion of VFA, metabolites of resveratrol and prokaryotic community composition were measured after 12 and 24 h of in vitro fermentation. Resveratrol reduced methane production (ml per mg of dry matter degraded) by 41% and 60% under both HC and HF diets (P < 0.001), respectively, and this result could be associated with the lower abundance of Methanobrevibacter (P < 0.001) in response to resveratrol. The molar proportion of propionate was significantly higher in the resveratrol group only under the HC diet (P = 0.045). The relative abundance of 10 bacterial genera was affected by the three-way interaction of treatment, diet and time (P < 0.05). Resveratrol was partly converted to dihydroresveratrol after 24 h of fermentation, and its degradation could be associated with microbes belonging to the order Coriobacteriales. Our results suggest that multiple factors (e.g. diet and time) should be considered in animal experiments to test the effect of polyphenol or other plant extracts on rumen fermentation, methane emission and microbial composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ma
- Key laboratory of Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Beijing Key Laboratory for Dairy Cow NutritionFeed Research InstituteChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesBeijingChina
| | - W. Wu
- Key laboratory of Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Beijing Key Laboratory for Dairy Cow NutritionFeed Research InstituteChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesBeijingChina
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyGansu Agricultural UniversityLanzhou, GansuChina
| | - Y. Tu
- Key laboratory of Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Beijing Key Laboratory for Dairy Cow NutritionFeed Research InstituteChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesBeijingChina
| | - N. Zhang
- Key laboratory of Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Beijing Key Laboratory for Dairy Cow NutritionFeed Research InstituteChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Q. Diao
- Key laboratory of Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Beijing Key Laboratory for Dairy Cow NutritionFeed Research InstituteChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesBeijingChina
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14
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Sarnataro C, Spanghero M. In vitro rumen fermentation of feed substrates added with chestnut tannins or an extract from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. ANIMAL NUTRITION 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2019.11.009 2405-6545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Sarnataro C, Spanghero M. In vitro rumen fermentation of feed substrates added with chestnut tannins or an extract from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 6:54-60. [PMID: 32211529 PMCID: PMC7082680 DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2019.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Rumen fermentation parameters and microbiota were evaluated in 3 in vitro rumen fermentation experiments after addition of chestnut tannins (CWT) or an extract from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni (SB) to substrates. A control (CTR) substrate was fermented alone or added with 1.5% of CWT or SB extracts in a batch culture system (Exp. 1, fermentation in 500 mL for 24 h) and in a subsequent continuous culture system (Exp. 2, fermentation in 2 L bottles for 9 d). Experiment 3 used the fermentation system of Exp. 1 and tested 7 doses of each extract added to CTR (additions of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1.0%, 1.2% and 1.4% for 48 h). The addition of CWT lowered (P < 0.01) the in vitro rumen ammonia concentration in all experiments and reduced the protozoa counts in Exp. 1 (P < 0.05). In contrast, the SB extract did not modify the ammonia concentrations, but significantly lowered the protozoa counts in all 3 experiments (reduction of 47% and 20% in Exp. 1 and 2, P < 0.05; and a quadratic reduction in Exp. 3, R2 = 0.63, P < 0.01). Neither extract affected the fermentation in terms of gas production (Exp. 1 and 3) nor volatile fatty acids (VFA) yield (Exp. 1 and 2), if we exclude a reduction at the highest CWT concentration in Exp. 3. Changes in VFA profile were induced by CWT and were limited to reductions in the iso-valerate (P < 0.01, in Exp. 2) and iso-butyrate levels (P < 0.01, Exp. 2). The CWT increased the abundance of Prevotella ruminicola and Selenomonas ruminantium and decreased that of Ruminobacter amylophilus (P < 0.01, P < 0.05 and P < 0.05, respectively). The SB extract increased the relative abundance of Treponema saccarophylum (P < 0.05). Both of the studied substances had an impact on rumen metabolism, with SB reducing protozoa counts and CWT lowering the rumen ammonia concentration. The effects of both extracts on the rumen were appreciable at low dietary doses, and the negative impacts on fermentation were limited to the reduction in protein degradation with the addition of CWT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Sarnataro
- Department of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine, Via Sondrio, 2/A, 33100, Udine, Italy
| | - Mauro Spanghero
- Department of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine, Via Sondrio, 2/A, 33100, Udine, Italy
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16
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Matra M, Wanapat M, Cherdthong A, Foiklang S, Mapato C. Dietary dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) peel powder improved in vitro rumen fermentation and gas production kinetics. Trop Anim Health Prod 2019; 51:1531-1538. [PMID: 30963404 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-019-01844-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Plant phytophenols especially condensed tannins (CT) and saponins (SP) have been demonstrated to impact on rumen fermentation. Dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) peel powder (DFPP) contains both CT and SP. The current study aimed to investigate the influence of DFPP and varying levels of concentrate and roughage ratios on gas production kinetics, nutrient degradability, and methane production "using in vitro gas production technique." The dietary treatments were arranged according to a 3 × 5 Factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design. The two experimental factors consisted of the roughage to concentrate (R:C) ratio (100:0, 70:30, and 30:70) and the levels of DFPP supplementation (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4% of the substrate) on DM basis. The results revealed that the R:C ratio at 30:70 had the highest cumulative gas production when compared to other ratios (P < 0.01). The in vitro true dry matter degradability at 12 and 24 h was affected by R:C ratio (P < 0.01). Furthermore, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and propionate (C3) were significantly increased by the levels of DFPP, while acetate (C2) and C2:C3 ratios were decreased (P < 0.05). The rumen protozoal population was significantly decreased by DFPP supplementation (P < 0.05). Rumen methane production was significantly impacted by R:C ratios and decreased when the level of DFPP increased (P < 0.01), while NH3-N and ruminal pH were not influenced by the DFPP supplement. It could be summarized that supplementation of DFPP resulted in improved rumen fermentation kinetics and could be used as a dietary source to mitigate rumen methane production, hence reducing greenhouse gas production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maharach Matra
- Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center (TROFREC), Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
| | - Metha Wanapat
- Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center (TROFREC), Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand.
| | - Anusorn Cherdthong
- Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center (TROFREC), Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
| | - Suban Foiklang
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Maejo University, Chiangmai, 50290, Thailand
| | - Chaowarit Mapato
- Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center (TROFREC), Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
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17
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Vasta V, Daghio M, Cappucci A, Buccioni A, Serra A, Viti C, Mele M. Invited review: Plant polyphenols and rumen microbiota responsible for fatty acid biohydrogenation, fiber digestion, and methane emission: Experimental evidence and methodological approaches. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:3781-3804. [PMID: 30904293 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-14985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The interest of the scientific community in the effects of plant polyphenols on animal nutrition is increasing. These compounds, in fact, are ubiquitous in the plant kingdom, especially in some spontaneous plants exploited as feeding resources alternative to cultivated crops and in several agro-industry by-products. Polyphenols interact with rumen microbiota, affecting carbohydrate fermentation, protein degradation, and lipid metabolism. Some of these aspects have been largely reviewed, especially for tannins; however, less information is available about the direct effect of polyphenols on the composition of rumen microbiota. In the present paper, we review the most recent literature about the effect of plant polyphenols on rumen microbiota responsible for unsaturated fatty acid biohydrogenation, fiber digestion, and methane production, taking into consideration the advances in microbiota analysis achieved in the last 10 yr. Key aspects, such as sample collection, sample storage, DNA extraction, and the main phylogenetic markers used in the reconstruction of microbial community structure, are examined. Furthermore, a summary of the new high-throughput methods based on next generation sequencing is reviewed. Several effects can be associated with dietary polyphenols. Polyphenols are able to depress or modulate the biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids by a perturbation of ruminal microbiota composition. In particular, condensed tannins have an inhibitory effect on biohydrogenation, whereas hydrolyzable tannins seem to have a modulatory effect on biohydrogenation. With regard to fiber digestion, data from literature are quite consistent about a general depressive effect of polyphenols on gram-positive fibrolytic bacteria and ciliate protozoa, resulting in a reduction of volatile fatty acid production (mostly acetate molar production). Methane production is also usually reduced when tannins are included in the diet of ruminants, probably as a consequence of the inhibition of fiber digestion. However, some evidence suggests that hydrolyzable tannins may reduce methane emission by directly interacting with rumen microbiota without affecting fiber digestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Vasta
- Food Scientist, viale delle Alpi 40, 90144, Palermo, Italy
| | - M Daghio
- Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni Agro-Alimentari e dell'Ambiente, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 18, 50144 Firenze, Italy
| | - A Cappucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Agro-ambientali, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - A Buccioni
- Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni Agro-Alimentari e dell'Ambiente, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 18, 50144 Firenze, Italy
| | - A Serra
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Agro-ambientali, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - C Viti
- Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni Agro-Alimentari e dell'Ambiente, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 18, 50144 Firenze, Italy
| | - M Mele
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Agro-ambientali, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; Centro di Ricerche Agro-ambientali "E. Avanzi," University of Pisa, Via Vecchia di Masrina, 6, 56100 Pisa, Italy.
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18
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Chellapandi P, Bharathi M, Sangavai C, Prathiviraj R. Methanobacterium formicicum as a target rumen methanogen for the development of new methane mitigation interventions: A review. Vet Anim Sci 2018; 6:86-94. [PMID: 32734058 PMCID: PMC7386643 DOI: 10.1016/j.vas.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Methanobacterium formicicum (Methanobacteriaceae family) is an endosymbiotic methanogenic Archaean found in the digestive tracts of ruminants and elsewhere. It has been significantly implicated in global CH4 emission during enteric fermentation processes. In this review, we discuss current genomic and metabolic aspects of this microorganism for the purpose of the discovery of novel veterinary therapeutics. This microorganism encompasses a typical H2 scavenging system, which facilitates a metabolic symbiosis across the H2 producing cellulolytic bacteria and fumarate reducing bacteria. To date, five genome-scale metabolic models (iAF692, iMG746, iMB745, iVS941 and iMM518) have been developed. These metabolic reconstructions revealed the cellular and metabolic behaviors of methanogenic archaea. The characteristics of its symbiotic behavior and metabolic crosstalk with competitive rumen anaerobes support understanding of the physiological function and metabolic fate of shared metabolites in the rumen ecosystem. Thus, systems biological characterization of this microorganism may provide a new insight to realize its metabolic significance for the development of a healthy microbiota in ruminants. An in-depth knowledge of this microorganism may allow us to ensure a long term sustainability of ruminant-based agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Chellapandi
- Molecular Systems Engineering Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620 024, India
| | - M Bharathi
- Molecular Systems Engineering Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620 024, India
| | - C Sangavai
- Molecular Systems Engineering Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620 024, India
| | - R Prathiviraj
- Molecular Systems Engineering Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620 024, India
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