Effect of dietary supplementation with long-chain n-3 fatty acids during late gestation and early lactation on mare and foal plasma fatty acid composition, milk fatty acid composition, and mare reproductive variables

Effects of Dietary Supplementation of Omega-3 PUFA Enriched Fish Oil During Late-Pregnancy and Lactation on Reproductive Performance, Immune Activity and Fecal Microbiota Composition in Postpartum Sows

Delayed or failed postpartum estrus can impede the reproductive performance of rebreeding dams. Our study aimed to test whether dietary fish oil can promote estrus return and improve fecal microbiota in multiparous sows. Forty-five sows were randomly allocated into three treatments: a basal diet, or a basal diet plus 30 or 60 g/day of fish oil from gestation day 90 to lactation day 21. Results showed that dietary fish oil significantly elevated circulating DHA in sows, without significant changes in litter size, litter weight, or backfat loss. Supplementation of fish oil (30 or 60 g/day) shortened the interval from weaning to estrus by 1.8 days and 1.67 days, respectively, associated with a significant boost of estradiol. Increases in prolactin and IgA were only significant in the high-dosage group. In addition, plasma MDA and antioxidant activities were up-regulated by fish oil, combined with elevated serum IL-1β and IL-6. Moreover, dietary fish oil significantly reduced serum zonulin, improved the Simpson index of fecal microbiota, and increased the abundance of Lactobacillus and Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014 genera. In conclusion, dietary omega-3 PUFA-enriched fish oil provides a promising approach to aiding estrus return and reshaping fecal microbiota in post-weaning sows.

The Effect of Increasing the Proportion of Dietary Roughage Based on the Partial Replacement of Low-Quality Roughage with Alfalfa Hay on the Fatty Acid Profile of Donkey Milk

As a lactation source, donkey milk contains a higher percentage of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the milk fatty acid profile than cow's milk, especially the percentage of α-linolenic acid (ALA). We hypothesized that the ratio of dietary concentrate/roughage could influence the composition of the fatty acid (FA) profile of donkey milk, and that the substitution of low-quality roughage with high-quality roughage could improve the composition of the polyunsaturated fatty acid profile of donkey milk. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effects of the partial dietary replacement of low-quality roughage with alfalfa hay to increase the proportion of roughage in the diet on the FA profiles in the milk of lactating donkeys, with the goal of optimizing the FA profiles of donkey milk. The trial design was a single-factor randomized design. Sixteen Dezhou donkeys of similar age, weight, parity, and lactation days were selected and equally divided (n = 8 per group) into a low alfalfa hay group (LG, 40 concentrate/60 roughage, alfalfa hay: 44.85 g/kg dry matter) and a high alfalfa hay group (HG, 30 concentrate/70 roughage, alfalfa hay: 179.48 g/kg dry matter). The trial lasted 8 weeks and the energy and protein levels of the two diets were identical. The results showed that the profile of milk ALA increased (p = 0.048) and the n-6/n-3 ratio and index of thrombogenicity were decreased (p = 0.019 and p = 0.002) in the HG. Partial replacement of low-quality roughage with alfalfa hay and increasing the percentage of dietary roughage from 60% to 70% optimized the FA quality of donkey milk fat.

The effects of a plant-based and a plant- and marine-based n-3 oil supplement on behavioral reactivity, heart rate variability, and plasma fatty acid profile in young healthy horses

Behavioral reactivity in horses poses a welfare and safety risk to both the horse and the handler, however, beneficial effects have been observed when dietary fat is increased in replacement of sugar. Supplementation with the fatty acids (FA) eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) appear to improve negative behaviors in rodents and humans, but the effect of α-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, and DHA, specifically, on reactivity in horses is unknown. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of camelina oil (CAM; ALA-enriched) and a mix of camelina and algal oil (ALG; ALA-, EPA-, and DHA-enriched) both fed at a dose of 0.37 g oil/kg body weight on plasma FA, behavior, and heart rate variability (HRV) in young horses compared to a negative control (CON). Thirty-four client-owned horses aged 7 mo to 6 yr were enrolled. Horses were assigned to either CAM, ALG, or CON and underwent a novel object test (NOT) before and after a 6-wk supplementation period. Prior to each NOT, blood was collected for evaluation of plasma FA profile (n = 28). During the NOT, behavior was recorded using a predetermined ethogram and assessed in BORIS software by 2 raters (n = 29). Electrocardiogram (ECG) data was collected at baseline, during the NOT, and after the NOT (recovery). The ECG data was analyzed in Kubios software for determination of heart rate (HR) and several HRV parameters (n = 24). The treatment oils were treated as fixed effects, baseline measurements as covariates, and location as a random effect. Plasma DHA (P < 0.01) was greater and n-6:n-3 ratio (P < 0.01) was reduced in ALG than in CAM and CON, while ALA and EPA were similar among treatments (P > 0.05). When treatments were pooled, the maximum HR (P < 0.01) and the low frequency to high frequency ratio HRV parameter (P < 0.01) were greater during the NOT compared to baseline and recovery. Bucking (P = 0.03) and backing (P = 0.02) behaviors were reduced in the CAM group compared to the CON group, but neither group differed from ALG. All other behaviors, HR, and HRV parameters were similar among treatments (P > 0.05). Our results suggest that the NOT was successful in creating acute stress, however, feeding either CAM or ALG at this dose did not reduce reactivity in this cohort of horses. Further research is needed to understand the effects of specific FA, if any, on behavior and HRV in more specific populations of horses and specifically those deemed highly reactive.

Report on a Milking Mule: Milk Qualitative Characteristics during Lactation

Despite their inability to reproduce naturally, mules can host embryos and be surrogate dams. The aim of this investigation was to increase our knowledge of the qualitative composition of mule's milk and its variations throughout the whole lactation period-namely, from 6 h after foaling to 180 days in milk (DIM). Milk was obtained from a mule dam that had foaled after receiving a mule embryo transfer. For each sample, the gross, mineral, and fatty acid composition was evaluated. The average quality of the mule milk was as follows: protein 1.97 g 100 mL-1, fat 0.90 g 100 mL-1, and ash 0.39 g 100 mL-1. Saturated fatty acids made up, on average, 50.00 g 100 g-1 of fat. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids made up half of the total fatty acid content (31.80 g 100 g-1 and 18.2 g 100 g-1 of fat, respectively). Linoleic acid and linolenic acid were the main polyunsaturated fatty acids in the milk. The milk composition changed throughout lactation. Dry matter, protein, fat, and ash decreased significantly from early lactation (6 h to 14 DIM). The n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased at the end of lactation. The changes in milk composition throughout lactation are probably due to adaptations to the growth requirements of the foal.

Nutritional Quality and Socio-Ecological Benefits of Mare Milk Produced under Grazing Management

This review discusses the scientific evidence that supports the nutritional value of mare milk and how its properties are essentially achieved when mares are managed under grazing conditions. Mare milk's similarity with the chemical composition of human milk makes this food and its derived products not only suitable for human consumption but also an interesting food regarding human health. The contribution of horse breeding under grazing management to other socio-ecological benefits generated by equine farms is also highlighted. Both the high added value of mare milk and the socio-ecological benefits derived from pasture-based systems could be explored to improve the performance of equine farms located in arid and semi-arid areas or in regions with moderately harsh environmental conditions as equids have a strong adaptation capacity.

Follicular Dynamics and Pregnancy Rates during Foal Heat in Colombian Paso Fino Mares Bred under Permanent Grazing

No studies have evaluated the peripartum follicular dynamics resulting in foal heat under tropical environments. We aimed to assess retrospectively the peripartum follicular dynamics in Colombian Paso Fino mares that were inseminated at the foal heat, becoming pregnant or not. Records including follicular dynamics of pregnant mares prepartum and from foaling until foal heat ovulation were assessed in Colombian Paso Fino mares (CPF, n = 24) bred under permanent grazing in a tropical herd in Colombia. The number of ovarian follicles >10 mm before foaling and the largest follicle (F1) growth rate (mm/day) from foaling until the F1 reached the largest diameter (pre-ovulatory size) at the foal heat were assessed. Mares were inseminated at foal heat with 20 mL of semen (at least 500 million live spermatozoa) with >75% motility and 80% viability from a stallion of proven fertility. Ovulation was confirmed the day after follicles had reached the largest diameter. Quantitative data from follicular growth, the day at ovulation, from mares that became pregnant (PM) or not (NPM) at 16 days post-insemination were compared by one-way ANOVA, repeated measures ANOVA (follicle growth rate data) or Chi-square test (edema and cytology scores data). Epidemiological data, gestation length, and the number of follicles on third prepartum days did not significantly differ between PM and NPM (p > 0.05). Seventy-one percent of mares (17/24) got pregnant. Ovulatory follicles grew faster in the NPM group (n = 7), which ovulated between the seventh and ninth postpartum days, compared to PM (n = 17), which ovulated between the 11th and 13th postpartum days. Pre-ovulatory follicle diameter in PM (48.57 ± 0.8 mm) was significantly larger than in NPM (42.99 ± 1.0 mm) (p < 0.05). In addition, the PM edema score (2.93 ± 0.32 mm) on ovulation day was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than NPM (4.47 ± 0.05 mm). First postpartum ovulation occurred at 12.6 ± 0.3 and 8.5 ± 0.4 days (p < 0.05) in PM and NPM, respectively. Colombian Paso Fino mares bred under permanent grazing under tropical rainforest conditions with no foaling or postpartum complications showed a 71% gestation rate when inseminated at foal heat when ovulation occurs between the second and third postpartum week.

Effects of maternal supplementation of fish oil during late gestation and lactation on growth performance, fecal microbiota structure and post-weaning diarrhoea of offspring piglets

Homeostasis of gut microbiota is a critical contributor to growth and health in weaned piglets. Fish oil is widely reported to benefit health of mammals including preventing intestinal dysfunction, yet its protective effect during suckling-to-weaning transition in piglets remains undetermined. Low (30 g/d) and high (60 g/d) doses of n-3-rich fish oil were supplemented in sows from late gestation to lactation. Serum indicators and gut microbiota were determined to evaluate the effects of maternal fish oil on growth performance, immunity and diarrhea of piglets. DHA and EPA in the colostrum as well as serum of suckling and 1-week post-wean piglets were significantly and linearly increased by maternal supplementation of fish oil (P < 0.05). IGF1 and T3 in nursing and weaned piglets were significantly elevated by maternal fish oil (P < 0.05), and the increase of IGF1 was concerning the dosage of fish oil. Colostrum IgG, plasma IgG, IgM in suckling piglets, IgG, IgM and IgA in weaned piglets were significantly increase as maternal replenishment of fish oil increased (P < 0.05). Additionally, cortisol was significantly reduced in weaned pigs (P < 0.05), regardless of dosage. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that α-diversity of fecal microbiota in nursery piglets, and fecal Lactobacillus genus, positively correlated with post-weaning IgA, was significantly increased by high dosage. Collectively, maternal fish oil during late pregnancy and lactation significantly promoted growth, enhanced immunity, and reduced post-weaning diarrhea in piglets, therefore facilitated suckling-to-weaning transition in piglets, which may be partially due to the altered gut microbial community.

Increased LC PUFA Levels in the Serum of Pregnant Women and Their Children as a Result of Dietary Supplementation with 'Omega' Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids (EFA) and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC PUFA) are considered the most valuable bioactive fatty acids (FA) of the greatest importance for the mother’s and child’s health (e.g., placentation process, labor course, development of the central nervous system, visual acuity, cognitive functions), which results in dietary recommendations concerning EFA and LC PUFA intake in the diet of pregnant women. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the frequency of different food products consumption and ‘omega’ dietary supplements usage in groups of pregnant women. We also measured n-3 and n-6 FA content in serum samples of pregnant women and their children with the GC-FID technique, estimated the efficacy of applied supplementation, and compared the usefulness of different dietary supplements dedicated for pregnant women. ‘Omega’ dietary supplements effectively increased LC PUFA in the maternal blood (EPA, p = 0.0379; DHA p < 0.0001; n-3 PUFA, p < 0.0001), which penetrated the umbilical cord (EPA, p = 0.0131; DHA, p = 0.0288). If fish and seafood consumption is not enough, dietary supplements of the highest quality may provide sufficient LC PUFA without apprehension of MetHg contamination. ‘Omega’ dietary supplementation seems the most efficient way of providing an optimal supply of LC PUFA for the developing child from the earliest stages of development, which will bring advantages in the child’s future life and its health.

Nutritional, Anthropometric and Sociodemographic Factors Affecting Fatty Acids Profile of Pregnant Women's Serum at Labour-Chemometric Studies

Diet influences the health of pregnant women and their children in prenatal, postnatal and adult periods. GC-FID fatty acids profile analysis in maternal serum and a survey of dietary habits were performed in 161 pregnant patients from the II Faculty and Clinic of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the Medical University of Warsaw. Their diet did not fulfil all nutritional recommendations regarding dietary fat sources. Olive and rapeseed oil were the most popular edible oils. High usage of sunflower oil as well as high consumption of butter were also observed, whereas fish and fish oil intake by pregnant women was low. A chemometric approach for nutritional data, connected with anthropometric, sociodemographic and biochemical parameters regarding mothers and newborns, was conducted for diet and its impact estimation. It revealed four clusters of patients with differing fatty acids profile, which resulted from differences in their dietary habits. Multiparous women to a lesser extent followed dietary recommendations, which resulted in deterioration of fatty acids profile and higher frequency of complications. Observed high usage of sunflower oil is disquieting due to its lower oxidative stability, whereas high butter consumption is beneficial due to conjugated linoleic acids supply. Pregnant women should also be encouraged to introduce fish and fish oil into their diet, as these products are rich sources of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC PUFA). Multiparous women should be given special medical care by medical providers (physicians, midwifes and dietitians) and growing attention from the government to diminish the risk of possible adverse effects affecting mother and child.

Nutrition of Broodmares

Forage availability should cover most needs for mares bred during spring and summer. Out-of-season breeding, lack of access to pasture, or good quality forage calls for nutritional supplementation. Current evaluations of broodmare needs are based on fetoplacental tissue requirements, but do not consider endocrine changes or that the maternal diet quality affects long-term foal health. This article reviews pregnant mares' current nutritional recommendations. Secondly, fetoplacental developmental stages during gestation are outlined, defining critical periods in the context of the developmental origins of health and disease. Last, examples of how maternal nutrition affects long-term foal health are presented.

Effects of dietary fish oil and alpha-tocopherol supplementation on selected blood parameters and fatty acid profiles in mares and their foals

The effects of fish oil (40 ml/day) supplementation, with or without synthetic all-rac-alpha-tocopherol-acetate (2,500 IU/day), during the last 65 days before expected parturition were investigated in 15 adult mares (553 ± 24 kg BW) and their foals. Mares were assigned to one of three diets: control (n = 5), control plus fish oil and alpha-tocopherol (n = 4; FO + AT) or control with just fish oil (n = 6; FO). Blood samples were obtained from the mares before a 15-day dietary adaptation period (T1) and from mares and foals the first (T2) and fifth (T3) days post-partum. Colostrum was collected at T2 and milk at T3. Routine haematological, biochemical and alpha-tocopherol analyses were undertaken on all blood samples. Fatty acid concentrations were determined in the foal serum and alpha-tocopherol concentrations measured in the milk and colostrum. Diet had no effect on haematology or biochemistry in the mares. Alpha-tocopherol concentrations were significantly higher at T2 & T3 in the FO + AT mares. Foal WBCs were higher in FO (11.33 ± 2.59 × 10⁹ /l), comparing to FO + AT and control groups (9.18 ± 1.24 × 10⁹ /l and 7.26 ± 1.03 × 10⁹ /l, respectively), at T3 (p < .05). There was no significant effect of the fish oil supplementation on the foal's serum fatty acid profile. In the FO + AT group, both colostrum and milk alpha-tocopherol concentrations (2.56 ± 0.36 and 1.36 ± 0.22 µg/ml, respectively) were higher compared than those of the FO group (1.33 ± 0.39 and 0.72 ± 0.31 µg/ml, respectively; p < .05). Additional 2,500 IU/day of synthetic alpha-tocopherol in the last 65 days of pregnancy increased alpha-tocopherol concentrations in colostrum and milk and the foal's serum. 40 ml/day fish oil, however, did not significantly increase serum eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid concentrations in the foals.

Equine Milk Production and Valorization of Marginal Areas-A Review

The equine dairy chain is renewing the interest toward horse and donkey breeding for the production of milk with potential health promoting properties. The dairy equine chain for human consumption could contribute to the rural eco-sustainable development for the micro-economies of those areas threatened by marginalization. As a part of the whole equine industry, and its possible impact in the modern and future society, the main traits of the equine dairy enterprise are reviewed with a special focus on management of animals and milk. Equine milk compositional and nutritional peculiarities are described as also related to milk hygiene and health issues. Scientific and technical aspects of the feeding management are considered in the frame of the emerging dairy equine enterprise, where pasture is an essential element that allows to match production goals for horses and donkeys, biodiversity preservation, as well as landscape safeguard.