Reliability and inter-test relationship of tests for on-farm assessment of dairy cows’ relationship to humans

Rethinking the utility of the Five Domains model

The Five Domains model is influential in contemporary studies of animal welfare. It was originally presented as a conceptual model to understand the types of impact that procedures may impose on experimental animals. Its application has since broadened to cover a wide range of animal species and forms of animal use. However, it has also increasingly been applied as an animal welfare assessment tool, which is the focus of this paper. Several critical limitations associated with this approach have not been widely acknowledged, including that: (1) it relies upon expert or stakeholder opinion, with little transparency around the selection of these individuals; (2) quantitative scoring is typically attempted despite the absence of clear principles for aggregation of welfare measures and few attempts to account for uncertainty; (3) there have been few efforts to measure the repeatability of findings; and (4) it does not consider indirect and unintentional impacts such as those imposed on non-target animals. These deficiencies lead to concerns surrounding testability, repeatability and the potential for manipulation. We provide suggestions for refinement of how the Five Domains model is applied to partially address these limitations. We argue that the Five Domains model is useful for systematic consideration of all sources of possible welfare compromise and enhancement, but is not, in its current state, fit-for-purpose as an assessment tool. We argue for wider acknowledgment of the operational limits of using the model as an assessment tool, prioritisation of the studies needed for its validation, and encourage improvements to this approach.

Infrared thermography as a tool for the measurement of negative emotions in dairy cows

In commercial dairy cows, the conditions in which they are kept may lead to negative emotional states associated with the development of chronic physiological and behavioural abnormalities that may compromise their health, welfare and productivity. Such states include fear, stress or anxiety. Behavioural rather than physiological tests are more likely to be used to indicate these states but can be limited by their subjectivity, need for specialised infrastructure and training (of the operator and sometimes the animal) and the time-consuming nature of data collection. Popularly used physiological measures such as blood cortisol may be more appropriate for acute rather than chronic assessments but are easily confounded, for example by a response to the act of measurement per se. More sophisticated physiological measures such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) may be impractical due to cost and time and, like blood cortisol, have the confounding associated with the act of measurement. By contrast, infrared thermography of external body surfaces is remote, non-invasive, easily repeated and follows an objective methodology, allowing longitudinal data acquisition for the inference of changes in chronic emotional state over time. The objective of this review was to investigate the potential of infrared thermography to measure cow emotions. In lactating dairy cows, maximum IRT of the eyes and coronary band of the limbs seem to be most representative of thermoregulatory changes, which are repeatable and correlate with behavioural and physiological indicators of emotional state. IRT methodologies have the potential to become a fundamental tool for the objective assessment of welfare state in dairy cows.

Drivers and indicators of dairy animal welfare in large-scale dairies (review)

While animal welfare concerns are rising globally, this has not been the case with lower- and middle-income economies in Africa and Asia such as Zimbabwe. These developing countries have their own problems which are not reported in developed countries, such as the harsh economic environment, limited technologies and different political and food security priorities. These factors limit focusing on animal welfare. Meanwhile, studies on animal welfare in these countries have been limited. The task of determining animal welfare is a very complex and can sometimes be very subjective since there is no gold standard protocol to be used in many developing countries. This paper reviews the main factors that are used to assess dairy animal welfare at a farm situation. The factors were categorised and generally discussed as drivers and indicators of dairy animal welfare. Key indicators reviewed in this study include but are not limited to production performance indicators, body condition scores, cleanliness scores, presence of clinical disease signs and physiological and behavioural indicators. Dairy animal welfare drivers discussed in this paper include but not limited to the general design of dairy cattle housing, presence of foot bath and shading facilities, presence and use of maternity paddocks, state of feeder and water troughs.

Welfare and management practices of free-ranging yaks (Bos grunniens) in Bhutan

Inaccessibility of veterinary and livestock extension services, and shortages of labour and forage could potentially impact the welfare of yaks ( Bos grunniens) in Bhutan. The objective of this study was to assess practices relating to the welfare and management of free-ranging yaks in Bhutan and explore variations between different yak-farming regions. We interviewed herders and observed the behaviour and health status of their animals, using an adaptation of the Welfare Quality® protocol, in three yak-farming regions (east, central and west) of Bhutan between October 2018 and January 2019. In total, for 567 cows and 549 calves, integumentary condition, body cleanliness, ocular and nasal discharge, diarrhoea, signs of damage, and gait were scored. In addition, we assessed 324 cows and 272 calves for avoidance distance and examined 324 cows for subclinical mastitis. The behaviour of the herds was observed in six consecutive 20-min blocks with each block divided into two stages. The first stage (5 min) consisted of counting the number of animals eating, lying down, standing idle and walking. The second stage (15 min) consisted of counting the number of events of agonistic, allogrooming, flehming, self-licking, rubbing/scratching and playing behaviour. Avoidance distance differed between regions for calves, but not for lactating cows. Integumentary lesions, dirty body areas, nasal discharge, ocular discharge, signs of diarrhoea, subclinical mastitis and lameness were virtually absent. A few instances of agonistic behaviour (6% of all counted behavioural events) and flehming behaviour (5% of all counted behavioural events) were observed. Yaks in the central and western regions exhibited more scratching and rubbing behaviour than those in the eastern region. Herders perform a variety of painful management practices (castration, ear tagging, nasal septum piercing) without analgesia, which is a prominent welfare issue. Furthermore, mortality among yaks is relatively high and water sources often dirty, creating a health risk. Nevertheless, the welfare status of yaks living in various regions of Bhutan was assessed as good at the time of visit.

Association between breeding bulls' reactivity to humans or handling and their daily behaviour and growth

In beef cattle, reactivity to humans or handling by humans is considered a safety issue for farmers and to impact on productivity. Several testing procedures, associated with potential risks for both humans and animals, have been developed, involving simple human approach, free animals individually handled, or restraint in handling facilities. We investigated how such tests may be related to each other and which dimensions they reveal. Of particular interest is the tolerance towards human approach or handling involving human or chute restraint, and whether they could be linked to the daily activity of animals and their growth, potentially enabling this activity to be used as a proxy for evaluating this reactivity to humans and handing. We observed 498 Limousin breeding bulls, of up to 14 months of age, at a bull testing station during standardised behavioural tests involving humans and handling: human approach at the feed barrier or out of the home pen during individual morphological evaluation, docility test where the experimenter attempts to maintain the bull in the corner of a test pen, and during restraint in a chute for weighing. Routinely collected on farm at approximately 8 months of age, bulls' reaction scores to human approach were also available. The animals wore MEDRIA collars with 3D-accelerometers that continually monitored their daily activities (ingestion, rumination, rest, etc.). Three 2-week periods spanning 4 months were analysed. We conducted a varimax-rotated principal component analysis (PCA) on behavioural tests: the first component (23.63% of the variability) summarised scores during restraint in the chute, and the second component (19.36% of the variability) summarised avoidance distance score at the feed barrier, score during morphological evaluation, and docility score. The daily activity of the bulls was consistent across the three 2-week periods that were analysed and was not related to the PCA dimensions (P > 0.1). Animals that could be approached at a closer distance reached a heavier weight at the age of 400 days (P < 0.001). In conclusion, within the limits of the test used, breeding bulls' reactivity to humans or handling comprised at least two dimensions: reactivity to human approach and reactivity to restraint (in the chute); which cannot be predicted from the animal's daily activity. A bull's acceptance of being approached by humans was positively related to its growth.

Unraveling the Complexity to Observe Associations Between Welfare Indicators and Hair Cortisol Concentration in Dairy Calves

Using levels of the stress hormone cortisol as an indicator for welfare is a common, but debated practice. In this observational study, hair cortisol concentration (HCC) of samples from 196 dairy calves from 7 to 302 days of age collected from 12 Swedish farms was determined using a commercially available ELISA. An assessment of animal welfare, assessed using animal-based indicators, was performed on the day of sampling. First, methodological factors with the potential to impact HCC and the effect of age were analyzed using generalized additive models. This revealed a significant peak in hair cortisol in young calves (around 50 days of age) and an association between fecal contamination of hair samples and the level of cortisol extracted. Second, associations between welfare indicators and HCC were explored using cluster analysis and regularized regression. The results show a complex pattern, possibly related to different coping styles of the calves, and indicators of poor welfare were associated with both increased and decreased hair cortisol levels. High cortisol levels were associated with potential indicators of competition, while low cortisol levels were associated with the signs of poor health or a poor environment. When running the regularized regression analysis without the contaminated hair samples and with the contaminated samples (including a contamination score), the results did not change, indicating that it may be possible to use a contamination score to correct for contamination.

Development and Validation of a Test for the Classification of Horses as Broken or Unbroken

Regulation EC 1/2005 has stricter rules for transportation of unbroken (untamed) vs. broken (tamed) horses, but does not provide adequate tools for their identification. This study aimed to develop and validate such a tool. A behavioural test (Broken/Unbroken Test (BUT)) based on approaching, haltering, and leading was applied to 100 horses. Physiological and additional behavioural data were also collected, and the horses' status (broken/unbroken) was assessed by the expert who administered the BUT. Each horse's behaviour during the BUT was scored by four trained observers blinded to the horse's history. The BUT score showed excellent inter-observer, intra-observer, and test-retest reliability (all intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) > 0.75). It was also negatively associated with respiratory rate, avoidance distance, and time needed to approach, halter, and lead the horse (p < 0.05 for all). The optimal BUT score cut-off for discrimination between broken and unbroken horses (gold standard: expert judgment) showed 97.8% sensitivity and 97.3% specificity. There was almost perfect agreement between BUT-based and expert classification of horses (ICC = 0.940). These findings confirm the BUT's construct and criterion validity. The BUT could provide officials with a feasible, reliable, and valid tool to identify a horse's broken/unbroken status and, consequently, direct stakeholders towards correct transport procedures.

Short- and long-term effects of rearing dairy calves with contact to their mother on their reactions towards humans

In this Research Communication we address the hypotheses that reduced contact with humans during the first week of life would impair the relationship of dairy calves reared in dam-calf-contact systems to humans in comparison with artificially reared animals, but that this difference would vanish over time. Artificially reared calves (Artificial) that had been separated from their mother within 12 h after birth were bottle-fed with colostrum for 5 d and thereafter sucked milk from an automatic milk feeder. Animals reared with dam-calf contact (Dam-contact) were kept in the calving pen with their dam for 5 d, and then had permanent access to the cow barn and thus to their dam. Calves were weaned at an age of 12 weeks and kept in young stock groups mixed of both treatments until integration into the cow herd. We tested the animals' relationship with humans by assessing the animals' responses towards an unfamiliar person in an avoidance distance (AD) test in the home environment at 4 weeks of age, at 15 months and at 33 months. In calves, we additionally measured AD in a novel arena after a stationary person test. Artificial animals had lower AD, i.e. showed lower level of fear, than Dam-contact calves. However, the AD in Dam-contact calves decreased with increasing number of days they experienced assistance for suckling. Further, there was no significant difference in later ages. In conclusion, gentle human contact in combination with feeding during the first 5 d of life improved calves' relationship to humans leading to differences between the two treatments as well as within the Dam-contact calves. Potential effects under different conditions regarding quantity and quality of human-animal interactions need further research.

Animal welfare outcomes and associated risk indicators on Austrian dairy farms: A cross-sectional study

In 2017, an Austrian dairy company implemented a third-party animal-based assessment of health and welfare to stimulate welfare improvements on farms. Using this cross-sectional data set, we aimed at identifying prevailing welfare problems and associations thereof with main farm and management characteristics. Welfare outcome measures regarding body condition, cleanliness, diarrhea, integument alterations, claw condition, lameness, rising behavior, and avoidance distance toward humans were assessed by 13 trained observers. Data from health recordings and farm characteristics, such as housing system, feeding regimen, and pasture access, were collected via a questionnaire. Analyses included outcome measures from 23,749 individual cows on 1,221 farms [median (M) herd size = 19, interquartile range (IQR) = 16]. Herd-level prevalence of the outcome measures showed a high between-farm variability with highest median values for dirty lower hind leg (M = 46%, IQR = 47), signs of diarrhea (M = 28%, IQR = 39), and hairless patches on the tarsal joint (M = 21%, IQR = 36). Median prevalence of severe welfare problems, such as very lean cows, lesions, lameness, or mastitis treatments, were low compared with previously reported findings (very lean: 0%, IQR = 0; lesion tarsus: 0%, IQR = 4; moderately lame loose-housed: 7%, IQR = 16; mastitis treatments: 10%, IQR = 16). On half of the farms, at least 83% (IQR = 25) of the assessed cows could be touched in a standardized approach test, indicating a good human-animal relationship. Using generalized linear models, we found frequent associations with welfare outcome measures for the amount of milk delivered per cow (e.g., lower risk of very lean cows or dirty hind legs but higher risk of mastitis treatments or antibiotic dry-off with increasing milk delivery), housing system (e.g., loose-housed animals were at lower risk of lesions on the tarsal joint than animals kept in tiestalls, but at higher risk of being classified as very fat), and assessment period (winter vs. summer period). Beneficial associations were consistently found for an increasing number of days with access to pasture (e.g., body condition, integument alterations, lameness) as well as organic compared with conventional farming (e.g., integument alterations, claw health, lameness). Although the latter associations may be especially important for advisory services, in policy making, or when engaging with the public, other farm or management characteristics require careful attention, as they may have both beneficial as well as adverse impacts on welfare, calling for good management skills to avoid undesired effects.

Assessing dairy cow welfare during the grazing and housing periods on spring-calving, pasture-based dairy farms

The different periods characterizing spring-calving, pasture-based dairy systems common in Ireland have seldom been the focus of large-scale dairy cow welfare research. Thus, the aim of this study was to devise and conduct an animal-based welfare assessment during both the grazing and housing periods on spring-calving, pasture-based dairy farms, to identify areas for improvement and establish benchmarks for indicators of good welfare. Assessment of seven animal-based welfare indicators was conducted during two visits (one each at grazing and housing) to 82 commercial dairy farms in southern Ireland. Herd-level descriptive statistics were performed for all welfare indicators at each visit, and differences between visits were analyzed using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. A mean of 9% and 10% clinically lame cows (mobility scores 2 and 3) were observed at housing and grazing, respectively. Recommended body condition scores (BCS) were not met for a mean of 13% of cows at grazing and 23% at housing, with more over-conditioned cows present at housing than grazing (P < 0.001). Ocular discharge was uncommon in both periods. Prevalence of moderate and severe nasal discharge combined was lower during housing (5%) than grazing (7%). In both periods, similar mean levels of tail injury were observed: 2% to 3% of cows with tail lacerations, 9% with broken tails, and 8% (measured at housing only) with docked tails. Integument alterations involved primarily hair loss and were most prevalent on the hindquarters (26%) during grazing and on the head–neck–back (66%) and the hindquarter (32%) regions during housing. Cows displayed an avoidance distance of >1 m (indicative of a fearful response) from an approaching human in an average of 82% of grazing cows and 42% to 75% of housed cows, dependent on test location. Opportunities to improve welfare in this system were identified in the areas of tail injury prevention, nasal health, and the management of indoor housing and feeding. The performance of the top 20% of farms for each welfare indicator was used to establish benchmarks of: 0% to 5% clinical lameness, 0% to 12% of cows outside recommended BCS, 0% to 27% ocular discharge, 2% to 16% nasal discharge, 0% tail lacerations and docked tails, 0% to 3% tail breaks, 0% to 14% integument alterations, and 4% to 74% for avoidance distance of >1 m. These represent attainable targets for spring-calving pasture-based farms to promote good dairy cow welfare.

Feasibility and reliability of a German guideline for farm's self-monitoring in sows and piglets

The present study's aim was to test a German guideline for farm's self-monitoring in sows and piglets for its feasibility as well as its interobserver and test-retest reliability. The study was performed between September 2016 and April 2018 on 13 farrowing farms in Northern Germany. Contrary to the guideline, the testing was not carried out by the farmers themselves but by 2 observers with experience in pigs representing common farmers. For the interobserver reliability study, the observers performed 20 joint farm visits independently assessing the same animals. For the test-retest reliability study, each farm was visited 5 times by 1 observer (day 0, day 3, week 7, month 5, month 10). Farm visit 1 (day 0) was used as reference and compared with the remaining farm visits. The reliability was evaluated using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (RS), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and limits of agreement (LoA). As results, the guideline's feasibility was limited. The indicators' reliability also presented divergent results: All indicators in piglets revealed acceptable to good interobserver reliability (RS 0.64 to 0.77 ICC 0.33 to 0.48 LoA between the intervals -0.02 to 0.13 and -0.02 to 0.00). Contrarily, interobserver reliability was low for indicators in sows (e.g., claw alterations: RS -0.41 ICC 0.00 LoA -0.97 to 0.68). Overall acceptable test-retest reliability could be assigned to all indicators although no exact agreement existed but only the pursuit of trends is indicated. On the basis of the present results, the guideline in its present form cannot be recommended for farms' self-monitoring. Given the restricted applicability, it should be reconsidered whether it might not be more appropriate to use scientifically tested and generally accepted animal welfare assessment systems such as the Welfare Quality animal welfare assessment protocols, although their application is also time-consuming.

The Power of a Positive Human-Animal Relationship for Animal Welfare

Domestic animals often seek and enjoy interacting with humans. Positive human-animal relationships can elicit positive emotions and other positive welfare outcomes. Nevertheless, our understanding of the underlying processes that govern the positive perception of humans by animals is incomplete. We cover the potential mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of positive human-animal relationships from the perspective of the animal. This encompasses habituation, associative learning, and possibly attachment or bonding based on communication and social cognition. We review the indicators from the literature to assess a positive human-animal relationship. We operationally define this positive relationship as the animal showing voluntary approach and spatial proximity (seeking) and signs of anticipation, pleasure, relaxation, or other indicators of a rewarding experience from interacting with the human. For research, we recommend accounting for the baseline human-animal relationship in the animal's everyday life, and incorporating a control treatment rather than only comparing positive to negative interaction treatments. Furthermore, animal characteristics, such as previous experience, genetics, and individual predisposition, as well as contextual characteristics related to the social and physical environment, may modulate the perception of humans by animals. The human-animal relationship is also influenced by human characteristics, such as the person's familiarity to the animal, attitudes, skills, and knowledge. We highlight implications for current practices and suggest simple solutions, such as paying attention to the animal's behavioral response to humans and providing choice and control to the animal in terms of when and how to interact with humans. Practical applications to achieve a positive perception of humans could be better utilized, such as by incorporating training principles, while keeping in mind trust and safety of both partners. Overall, there is growing evidence in the scientific literature that a positive human-animal relationship can bring intrinsic rewards to the animals and thereby benefit animal welfare. Further research is needed on the underlying processes to establish an effective positive human-animal relationship, especially in regard to the type, frequency, and length of human interaction necessary. In particular, the importance of providing animals with a sense of agency over their interactions with humans remains poorly understood.

Methodology for experimental and observational animal studies in cow-calf contact systems

In this Research Reflection we describe a common standpoint on suitable methodology for controlled and observational studies in cow-calf contact systems in dairy production. Different methods to assess behaviour, health and production in cow-calf contact systems are outlined. Knowledge and experience from researchers working in this field supplement scientific literature whenever relevant. Specific methods including study design, early behaviour of cow and calf, social behaviour relevant to cow-calf contact systems, human-animal relationships and aspects related to management (milking, weaning and separation, health) are reviewed, and recommendations formed. We expect that this paper can contribute to a better understanding of the complexity of cow-calf contact systems and help to advance research in this area of dairy production.

The human-animal relationship in dairy animals

The present study aims to identify margins for the improvement of dairy animal welfare and production based on the quality of the human-animal relationship (HAR). The main tool proposed to improve the quality of HAR in dairy animals is training of stock-people by targeting their attitude and behaviour. Given that a good quality HAR may benefit the welfare of dairy animals and productivity, new technologies, by monitoring the handling routine on farm, may be more effective in promoting good practices. In particular, the implementation of new technologies may allow identification of specific inappropriate behaviours to be targeted at stockperson level, thus increasing the efficacy of training. However, an issue related to the introduction of new technologies in the farms, particularly in those that follow traditional farming practices, is the resistance to innovation which may be encountered.

How Can We Assess Positive Welfare in Ruminants?

Until now, most research has focused on the development of indicators of negative welfare, and relatively few studies provide information on valid, reliable, and feasible indicators addressing positive aspects of animal welfare. However, a lack of suffering does not guarantee that animals are experiencing a positive welfare state. The aim of the present review is to identify promising valid and reliable animal-based indicators for the assessment of positive welfare that might be included in welfare assessment protocols for ruminants, and to discuss them in the light of the five domains model, highlighting possible gaps to be filled by future research. Based on the existing literature in the main databases, each indicator was evaluated in terms of its validity, reliability, and on-farm feasibility. Some valid indicators were identified, but a lot of the validity evidence is based on their absence when a negative situation is present; furthermore, only a few indicators are available in the domains of Nutrition and Health. Reliability has been seldom addressed. On-farm feasibility could be increased by developing specific sampling strategies and/or relying on the use of video- or automatic-recording devices. In conclusion, several indicators are potentially available (e.g., synchronisation of lying and feeding, coat or fleece condition, qualitative behaviour assessment), but further research is required.

Test-Retest Reliability of the 'Welfare Quality® Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Sows and Piglets'. Part 1. Assessment of the Welfare Principle of 'Appropriate Behavior'

Simple Summary

The EU-funded Welfare Quality^® project generated species-specific assessment protocols to evaluate the welfare of pigs, poultry, and cattle. With the implementation to be used for certification purposes, it is important that the protocols show consistency over time, which describes the extent to which equal results are achieved if the assessment is performed repetitively. The protocols should not be sensitive to slight changes in the on-farm situation but mirror the long-term welfare situation on-farm. The present study aimed at testing this consistency over time of the indicators included in the ‘Welfare Quality^® animal welfare assessment protocol for sows and piglets’. Thereby, the study focused on the indicators to assess the welfare principle ‘appropriate behavior’. As a result, the indicators applied to assess the animals’ ‘appropriate behavior’ did not represent consistency over time. Thus, further investigation is needed before implementation on-farm. Conclusively, the present study contributes to the development of generally accepted and objective assessment protocols for animal welfare and thereby to the improvement of farm animals’ welfare overall.

Abstract

The present study’s aim was to assess the test−retest reliability (TRR) of the ‘Welfare Quality^® animal welfare assessment protocol for sows and piglets’ focusing on the welfare principle ‘appropriate behavior’. TRR was calculated using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (RS), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), smallest detectable change (SDC), and limits of agreement (LoA). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used for deeper analysis of the Qualitative Behavior Assessment (QBA). The study was conducted on thirteen farms in Northern Germany, which were visited five times by the same observer. Farm visits 1 (F1; day 0) were compared to farm visits 2 to 5 (F2–F5). The QBA indicated no TRR when applying the statistical parameters introduced above (e.g., ‘playful‘ (F1–F4) RS 0.08 ICC 0.00 SDC 0.50 LoA [−0.62, 0.38]). The PCA detected contradictory TRR. Acceptable TRR could be found for parts of the instantaneous scan sampling (e.g., negative social behavior (F1–F3) RS 0.45 ICC 0.37 SDC 0.02 LoA [−0.03, 0.02]). The human−animal relationship test solely achieved poor TRR, whereas scans for stereotypies showed sufficient TRR (e.g., floor licking (F1–F4) RS 0.63 ICC 0.52 SDC 0.05 LoA [−0.08, 0.04]). Concluding, the principle ‘appropriate behavior’ does not represent TRR and further investigation is needed before implementation on-farm.

Avoidance Distance in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Other Welfare Parameters

The human-animal relationship is an important welfare parameter in animal welfare assessment in cows, and the avoidance distance of cows to a stranger at the feed bunk is measured to assess this relationship. The assessment of the human-animal relationship in cow shelters in India, where old, unproductive, and abandoned cows are sheltered, is important to explore the welfare of cows in these shelters. The cows observed were of indigenous Indian breeds and breeds which were crosses between indigenous breeds and pure bred exotic cows. The human-animal contact in this context is of particular interest for welfare assessment as traditional Indian farming and sheltering systems involves regular close human-animal contact. In a cross-sectional study across 6 states, 54 cow shelters were visited and 30 cows in each shelter were randomly selected (1620 in total) for the assessment of avoidance distance and other cow-based (27 parameters) and resource-based (15 parameters) welfare parameters. Avoidance distance was assessed 1 h after morning feeding. Cows standing at the feeding manger were approached from the front at a rate of one step/s, starting 2 m away from the manger. The distance between the assessor's hand and the cow's head was estimated at the moment the cow moved away and turned its head, using a four-point scale (0, touched; 1, 0-50 cm; 2, 51-100 cm; and 3, >100 cm). The majority, 52%, of the cows allowed touch by the assessor and another 32% allowed approach within 50 cm, demonstrating tolerance, or even solicitation of close human-animal relationships by the cows. Avoidance distance increased with the proportion of cows with dirty hind limbs, tarsal joint swellings, and hair loss, and the extent of rumen fill. There was also evidence of reduced avoidance distances in cows with high levels of body condition score (BCS), dirty flanks, tarsal joint ulceration, carpal joint injuries, diarrhoea, hampered respiration, lesions on the body due to traumatic injuries, and body coat condition, probably as a result of moving difficulties. The avoidance distance was thus related to the health and welfare of the cows, providing a vital insight into the factors affecting human-animal contact in the shelters.

Human-Animal Interactions in Dairy Buffalo Farms

Simple Summary

The quality of the human-animal relationship plays a central role in determining animal welfare. In this study, we assessed the relationship between stockperson behavior and buffalo behavior. In particular, during milking, we recorded the behavior of stockpeople in terms of quality and quantity of interactions, and we recorded the behavior of animals in terms of restlessness, whereas at the feeding place, we measured the avoidance distance. Avoidance distance of an animal can be defined as the distance to which the animal will allow an unknown person to approach before moving to the side or away. We found that a high percentage of negative stockperson interactions (shouting, talking impatiently, slapping, and handling forcefully) were associated with a high avoidance distance at the feeding place and restlessness during milking. Therefore, appropriate stockpeople training should be conducted to improve the human-animal relationship with positive effects on animal welfare, productivity, and stockpeople safety.

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the relationship between stockperson behavior and buffalo behavior. The research was carried out in 27 buffalo farms. The behavior of stockpeople and animals during milking and the avoidance distance at the feeding place were recorded. Recordings were repeated within one month to assess test-retest reliability. A high degree of test-retest reliability was observed for all the variables with Spearman rank correlation coefficients (r_s) ranging from 0.578 (p = 0.002, df = 25) for the number of kicks performed during milking to 0.937 (p < 0.001, df = 25) for the percentage of animals moving when approached by ≤ 0.5 m. The number of negative stockperson interactions correlated positively with the number of kicks during milking (r_s = 0.421, p < 0.028, df = 25) and the percentage of animals injected with oxytocin (r_s = 0.424, p < 0.027), whereas the percentage of negative stockperson interactions correlated positively with the percentage of buffaloes moving when approached at a distance >1 m (r_s = 0.415, p < 0.031, df = 25). In a subsample of 14 farms, milk yield was correlated positively with the number of positive interactions (r_s = 0.588, p < 0.027, df = 12) and correlated negatively with the number of steps performed by the animals during milking (r_s = −0.820, p < 0.001, df = 12). This study showed that the quality of stockpeople interactions may affect buffalo behavior and production.

Test-retest reliability of the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for pigs applied to sows and piglets. Part 2. Assessment of the principles good feeding, good housing, and good health1

The present study aimed at testing the feasibility and on-farm test-retest reliability of the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for pigs applied to sows and piglets. The study was conducted on 13 farms in Northern Germany, which were visited 5 times by the same observer, and included 2 experimental setups: first, the complete Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for sows and piglets was applied to the farms. Second, additional assessments in the gestation unit considered all sows. The complete protocol assessments were used to evaluate the feasibility of the protocol. Furthermore, the data were analyzed with regard to on-farm test-retest reliability. The present publication focuses on the Welfare Quality principles good feeding, good housing, and good health, which are based on individual indicators (IN). The second experimental setup was utilized to verify the test-retest reliability of IN in the gestation unit with an increased number of animals under assessment. The test-retest reliability was calculated using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (RS), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), smallest detectable change (SDC), and limits of agreement (LoA). Farm visit 1 (F1; day 0) was set as a reference and compared with farm visits 2 to 5 (F2 to 5; day 3, week 7, month 5, month 10). The IN of the above-named Welfare Quality principles achieved mostly acceptable test-retest reliability (e.g., wounds on the body F1 to F4: RS 0.34 to 0.57, ICC 0.40 to 0.41, SDC 0.02 to 0.12, LoA [-0.03; 0.02] to [-0.09; 0.14]) in terms of the on-farm test-retest reliability. Poor test-retest reliability was detected for body condition score concerning the principle good feeding, for bursitis and panting in sows and for huddling and panting in piglets within the principle good housing, and finally for vulva lesions, metritis, and local infections in sows and for scouring and lameness in piglets in the principle good health. Variations among the farm visits, which resulted in poor test-retest reliability, may be explained by seasonal effects (panting), moving animals (bursitis, lameness, huddling), rare occurrences of diseases (metritis, local infections, scouring), and differently conditioned sow groups (body condition score). The second experimental setup confirmed the results for IN in the gestation unit. Thus, the reported test-retest reliability determines the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for sows and piglets to be a reliable approach to assess welfare in sows and piglets.

Interobserver Reliability of the Animal Welfare Indicators Welfare Assessment Protocol for Horses

Objective tools for the assessment of animal welfare are needed. The present study analyzed the interobserver reliability of the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for horses to further enhance knowledge concerning reliability. Therefore, two trained observers conducted 18 assessments on farm at the same time and on the same animals. The results were compared at individual level by calculation of Cohen's kappa (κ), weighted kappa (κ_w), and prevalence-adjusted, bias-adjusted kappa (PABAK). Spearman rank correlation coefficient (RS), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), limits of agreement (LoA), and smallest detectable change (SDC) were used at farm level. The Qualitative Behaviour Assessment was further analyzed by means of principal component analysis. At the individual level, most of the indicators demonstrated acceptable (κ, κ_w, PABAK ≥ 0.4) to good (κ, κ_w, PABAK ≥ 0.6) interobserver reliability. Also, at farm level, most of the indicators demonstrated acceptable (RS ≥ 0.4; ICC ≥ 0.4; SDC: ≤ 0.1; LoA ε [0.1; 0.1]) to good (RS: ≥ 0.7; ICC: ≥ 0.7; SDC: ≤ 0.05; LoA: ε [0.05; 0.05]) interobserver reliability. Exceptions were the indicators moderate presence of tension above eye area (score 1) and orbital tightening (score 1) on the Horse Grimace Scale, as well as the presence of swollen joints. Furthermore, the present results indicate that the details for the different scores should be improved for some indicators such as the Body Condition Score. In general, this study points out a good interobserver reliability of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses.

Human and farm influences on dairy cows´ responsiveness towards humans - a cross-sectional study

The human-animal relationship can have a major impact on cow welfare and stockpersons´ work safety and quality. This cross-sectional study investigated possible effects of stockperson and farm related factors on cows´ behaviour towards humans in different test situations on a range of farm types including farms with automatic milking system. On 32 dairy farms, cows´ avoidance distances (AD), tolerance to tactile interactions (TTI), behavioural reactions during and after release from restraint (RB) and expressive behaviour by means of qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) were recorded. Multiple regressions were calculated to analyse associations between the cows´ responses towards humans and factors of stockpersons´ attitudes, factors of human-animal contact and further herd and management characteristics. Positive attitudes towards cows were significantly associated with calmer cows in all test situations. Furthermore, different herd and management factors were related to individual variables of cows´ behaviour towards humans: for instance, the percentage of dehorned cows in the herd was associated with more fearful cows; the frequency of human-animal contact, manual feed provision, or selection for docility were associated with calmer cows. Explained variances were highest for the outcome variables AD and QBA. Directly or indirectly all factors remaining in the final models may be related to the amount and quality of human-animal contacts. Thus, the results suggest that on a broad range of different farm types a positive attitude and frequent human-animal contact can contribute to calmer cows in different interactions with humans in the barn.

Interobserver reliability of the 'Welfare Quality(®) Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Growing Pigs'

The present paper focuses on evaluating the interobserver reliability of the 'Welfare Quality(®) Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Growing Pigs'. The protocol for growing pigs mainly consists of a Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA), direct behaviour observations (BO) carried out by instantaneous scan sampling and checks for different individual parameters (IP), e.g. presence of tail biting, wounds and bursitis. Three trained observers collected the data by performing 29 combined assessments, which were done at the same time and on the same animals; but they were carried out completely independent of each other. The findings were compared by the calculation of Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients (RS), Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), Smallest Detectable Changes (SDC) and Limits of Agreements (LoA). There was no agreement found concerning the adjectives belonging to the QBA (e.g. active: RS: 0.50, ICC: 0.30, SDC: 0.38, LoA: -0.05 to 0.45; fearful: RS: 0.06, ICC: 0.0, SDC: 0.26, LoA: -0.20 to 0.30). In contrast, the BO showed good agreement (e.g. social behaviour: RS: 0.45, ICC: 0.50, SDC: 0.09, LoA: -0.09 to 0.03 use of enrichment material: RS: 0.75, ICC: 0.68, SDC: 0.06, LoA: -0.03 to 0.03). Overall, observers agreed well in the IP, e.g. tail biting (RS: 0.52, ICC: 0.88; SDC: 0.05, LoA: -0.01 to 0.02) and wounds (RS: 0.43, ICC: 0.59, SDC: 0.10, LoA: -0.09 to 0.10). The parameter bursitis showed great differences (RS: 0.10, ICC: 0.0, SDC: 0.35, LoA: -0.37 to 0.40), which can be explained by difficulties in the assessment when the animals moved around quickly or their legs were soiled. In conclusion, the interobserver reliability was good in the BO and most IP, but not for the parameter bursitis and the QBA.

Applying animal-based welfare assessments on New Zealand dairy farms: feasibility and a comparison with United Kingdom data

AIMS

To assess the feasibility of applying animal-based welfare assessments developed for use in Europe on New Zealand dairy farms; in particular, to identify measures which could be evaluated during a single visit at milking time alongside whole herd locomotion scoring.

METHODS

A protocol for animal welfare assessment, developed in the United Kingdom (UK), was evaluated. Measures that were suitable for use on pasture-based dairy farms in New Zealand were then assessed for practicability on 59 farms across New Zealand, during and immediately after milking, alongside whole herd locomotion scoring. Where data were collected the results were compared to those from a UK study of 53 dairy farms.

RESULTS

Thirteen observations of the physical condition of cows were considered suitable for measurement, excluding observations related to hock lesions as they are rarely observed on pasture-based farms. Five of these measures were not assessed as there was not time to do so during milking alongside whole herd locomotion scoring. Thus, the prevalence of dirty flanks, hind limbs and udders, dull coat, thick hairy coat, significant hair loss, very fat cows (body condition score (BCS) ≥7 on 1-10 scale) and very thin cows (BCS≤3), were recorded. Three measures of behaviour were considered suitable for measurement on-farm, but only locomotion score was practicable and was measured. Farmer-estimates for the incidence of mastitis, lameness, sudden death, milk fever and other diseases were also obtained.Overall, dirty flanks, dirty udders and estimated milk fever incidence were more prevalent in this study than in the UK. The prevalence of thin and fat cows, lame cows and estimated mastitis incidence were much lower in the present study than on UK farms.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Animal-based assessments can be used on dairy farms in New Zealand, but need to be modified from those developed for housed cows.Welfare on these farms was generally good compared to those in the UK, but these results need to be confirmed on more farms using a wider range of assessments than proved practicable in this study.

Application of the Welfare Quality protocol to dairy buffalo farms: Prevalence and reliability of selected measures

Within the general aim of developing a Welfare Quality system for monitoring dairy buffalo welfare, this study focused on prevalence and interobserver reliability of the animal-related variables to be included in the scheme. As most of the measures were developed for cattle, the study also aimed to verify their prevalence for buffaloes. Thirty animal-based measures (22 clinical and 8 behavioral measurements) and 20 terms used for qualitative behavior assessment were assessed in 42 loose-housed buffalo farms. All farms were located in central-southern Italy. Two assessors were used (1 male and 1 female). The time needed to record all measures (animal-, resource-, and management-based) was 5.47 ± 0.48 h (mean ± SD). Interobserver reliability of animal-based measures was evaluated using Spearman rank correlation coefficient test (rs). If 0.7 is considered as threshold for high interobserver reliability, all animal-based measures were above this level. In particular, most of the coefficients were above 0.85, with higher values observed for prevalence of animals that can be touched (rs = 0.99) and prevalence of animals with iatrogenic abscess (rs = 0.97), whereas lower coefficients were found for the prevalence of vulvar discharge (rs = 0.74) and dewlap edema (rs = 0.73). Twelve out of the 20 terms used for the qualitative behavior assessment reached a satisfactory interobserver reliability (rs = 0.65). Principal component analysis of qualitative behavior assessment scores was conducted for each assessor. Both principal component 1 and principal component 2 showed high interobserver reliability (rs = 0.80 and 0.79, respectively). In addition, relevant proportions of animals were affected by welfare issues specific to buffaloes, such as overgrown claws (median = 34.1%), withers hygroma (median = 13.3%), and vulvar or uterine prolapse (median = 9.3%). We concluded that most of the investigated measures could be reliably included in the final scheme, which can be used as such to monitor buffalo welfare. However, to inform consumers about the welfare status of the animals, the data should be integrated into a single overall assessment of animal welfare, as already performed in the Welfare Quality project for dairy cattle.

The Relationship between Farmers' Perceptions and Animal Welfare Standards in Sheep Farms

In this study, we investigated the relationship between welfare standards in sheep farms and farmers’ perceptions of factors affecting animal welfare. We developed a scale of 34 items to measure farmers’ perceptions of animal welfare. We examined the relationships among variables in farmers’ characteristics, our observations, and farmers’ expressed perceptions through a t test, variance analysis and correlation analysis. Results of the research suggested that higher welfare standards for sheep exist on farms run by farmers who have a higher perception level of animal welfare. These farmers believed that personnel and shelter conditions were more effective than veterinary inspection, feeding and other factors in terms of animal welfare. In addition, we detected a significant relationship between the farmers’ perceptions and their gender, educational level, whether they enjoyed their work, or whether they applied the custom of religious sacrifice. Our results showed that emotional and cognitive factors related to farmers’ perceptions may offer opportunities for progress in the domain of animal welfare.

The effect of training first-lactation heifers to the milking parlor on the behavioral reactivity to humans and the physiological and behavioral responses to milking and productivity

The objectives of this study were (1) to determine whether training heifers before calving would modulate the behavioral reactivity to humans and the behavioral and physiological responses to milking routines after calving, and (2) whether heifer temperament would affect this response. The behavioral reactivity of heifers to humans was assessed prepartum using 4 behavioral tests (restraint, exit speed, avoidance distance in the paddock and arena, and a voluntary approach test). These behavioral tests were repeated immediately after and 12 wk after training. Temperament was defined based on exit time from a restraint device, and heifers were denoted as either low (LR; n=20) or high (HR; n=20) responders. Two weeks before calving, half the LR and HR heifers were selected randomly for training to the milking parlor, whereas the other heifers were left undisturbed in the paddock. Training consisted of 4 sessions conducted over 2 consecutive days and involved introducing the heifers to the milking platform, associated noises, and human contact. During the first 5d of lactation, behavioral and physiological data were collected from all heifers, including behavior during cup attachment, plasma cortisol concentrations, and residual milk volumes. Milk production data were collected over the entire lactation period. Training reduced the avoidance distance of LR but not HR heifers, and trained HR heifers stepped more than trained LR heifers during a restraint test. The behavioral response of heifers to the restraint test was positively correlated with milk yield, milking duration, and residual milk volume. Trained LR heifers flinched, stepped, and kicked more during attachment of milking clusters than did untrained LR heifers. During the first week of lactation, total milk yield was lower in trained than untrained HR heifers, and maximum flow rates were higher and residual milk volumes were lower in trained than untrained heifers, irrespective of heifer temperament. Plasma cortisol concentrations were lower on d 5 of lactation than on d 1 and were higher in HR heifers after milking than before milking. Over the first 8 mo of lactation, milking duration was lower and average flow rates were higher in trained than untrained heifers. These results suggest that trained heifers may have experienced less distress during the first week of lactation, but the effect of training on the behavioral and physiological responses to milking appeared to be influenced by heifer temperament.

Intensity of oestrus signalling is the most relevant indicator for animal well-being in high-producing dairy cows

Full signalling of oestrous behaviour is vital for proper timing of AI and good reproductive performance, currently jeopardized by shorter observations of oestrus behaviour. Alternative indicators including progesterone (P(4)) recordings on-farm are tested. Oestrous intensity of 37 heifers (H) and 30 1st-parity dairy cows (C(1)) either Swedish Red (32) or Swedish Holstein (35) with high genetic potential for milk production, was studied in relation to AI. P(4)-levels in blood or milk were monitored on-farm at 0, 7, and 20 d post-AI with a portable ELISA reader (eProCheck(800)). Avoidance distance and body condition were scored at day 7, and pregnancy diagnosed by P(4) (day 20) and trans-rectal palpation (day 50). More heifers (46%) than C(1)-cows (10%) showed standing oestrus (strongest intensity, P < 0.05), leading to higher pregnancy rate at d50 (72% versus 37% for C1, P < 0.01) and calving rate (H: 64%, C1: 33%, P < 0.05). Avoidance distances were short (<1 m), reflecting good human-animal interaction. Visually-recorded standing oestrus yielded 4.8 fold higher odds of pregnancy, respectively 4.6-fold higher odds of calving. On-farm P4-recordings had complementary value yet less accuracy. Intensity of oestrus signalling relates to animal well-being, reflected in pregnancy-to-term being a good indicator for optimal welfare in high-producing dairy cattle.