Solid-phase crystallization of spray-dried glucose powders: A perspective and comparison with lactose and sucrose

Systematic Investigation on the Glass Transition Temperature of Binary and Ternary Sugar Mixtures and the Applicability of Gordon-Taylor and Couchman-Karasz Equation

Glass transition temperatures (T_g) of carbohydrate mixtures consisting of only one monomer and glycosidic binding type (aldohexose glucose, α1-4-glycosidic bonded) were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The aim of this work was to systematically assess the predictability of T_g of anhydrous binary and ternary sugar mixtures focusing on the components T_g, molecular chain length, and shape. Binary systems were investigated with glucose as a monosaccharide and its linear di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, and heptasaccharides. Additionally, the T_g of ternary carbohydrate systems prepared with different glucose/maltose/maltotriose mass fractions were studied to evaluate the behavior of more complex mixtures. An experimental method to prepare fully amorphized, anhydrous mixtures were developed which allows the analysis of mixtures with strongly different thermodynamic pure-component properties (T_g, melting temperature, and degradation). The mixtures’ T_g is systematically underestimated by means of the Couchman–Karasz model. A systematic, sigmoidal deviation behavior from the Gordon–Taylor model could be found, which we concluded is specific for the investigated glucopolymer mixtures. At low concentrations of small molecules, the model underestimates T_g, meeting the experimental values at about equimolarity, and overestimates T_g at higher concentrations. These deviations become more pronounced with increasing T_g differences and were explained by a polymer mixture-specific, nonlinear plasticizing/thermal volume expansion effect.

Delivery of Dry Powders to the Lungs: Influence of Particle Attributes from a Biological and Technological Point of View

Dry powder inhalers are medical devices used to deliver powder formulations of active pharmaceutical ingredients via oral inhalation to the lungs. Drug particles, from a biological perspective, should reach the targeted site, dissolve and permeate through the epithelial cell layer in order to deliver a therapeutic effect. However, drug particle attributes that lead to a biological activity are not always consistent with the technical requirements necessary for formulation design. For example, small cohesive drug particles may interact with neighbouring particles, resulting in large aggregates or even agglomerates that show poor flowability, solubility and permeability. To circumvent these hurdles, most dry powder inhalers currently on the market are carrier-based formulations. These formulations comprise drug particles, which are blended with larger carrier particles that need to detach again from the carrier during inhalation. Apart from blending process parameters, inhaler type used and patient's inspiratory force, drug detachment strongly depends on the drug and carrier particle characteristics such as size, shape, solid-state and morphology as well as their interdependency. This review discusses critical particle characteristics. We consider size of the drug (1-5 µm in order to reach the lung), solid-state (crystalline to guarantee stability versus amorphous to improve dissolution), shape (spherical drug particles to avoid macrophage clearance) and surface morphology of the carrier (regular shaped smooth or nano-rough carrier surfaces for improved drug detachment.) that need to be considered in dry powder inhaler development taking into account the lung as biological barrier.