Ferroptosis in Parkinson's disease: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Physical Exercise-Induced Activation of NRF2 and BDNF as a Promising Strategy for Ferroptosis Regulation in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death, may contribute to the progression of PD owing to an unbalanced brain redox status. Physical exercise is a complementary therapy that can modulate ferroptosis in PD by regulating the redox system through the activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling. However, the precise effects of physical exercise on ferroptosis in PD remain unclear. In this review, we explored how physical exercise influences NRF2 and BDNF signaling and affects ferroptosis in PD. We further investigated relevant publications over the past two decades by searching the PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases using keywords related to physical exercise, PD, ferroptosis, and neurotrophic factor antioxidant signaling. This review provides insights into current research gaps and demonstrates the necessity for future research to elucidate the specific mechanisms by which exercise regulates ferroptosis in PD, including the assessment of different exercise protocols and their long-term effects. Ultimately, exploring these aspects may lead to the development of improved exercise interventions for the better management of patients with PD.

Long-term 4-nonylphenol exposure drives cervical cell malignancy through MAPK-mediated ferroptosis inhibition

4-NP (4-nonylphenol), a prevalent environmental endocrine disruptor with estrogenic properties, is commonly detected in drinking water and food sources. It poses a significant risk of endocrine disruption, thereby influencing the onset and progression of diverse diseases, including tumorigenesis. However, its specific impact on cervical cancer remains to be fully elucidated. Our study focused on the biological effects of sustained exposure to low-dose 4-NP on human normal cervical epithelial cells (HcerEpic). After a continuous 30-week exposure to 4-NP, the treated cells exhibited a significant malignant transformation, whereas the solvent control group showed limited malignant phenotypes. Subsequent analyses of the metabolomic profiles of the transformed cells unveiled marked irregularities in glutathione metabolism and unsaturated fatty acid metabolism. Analyses of transcriptomic profiles revealed significant activation of the MAPK signaling pathway and suppression of ferroptosis processes in these cells. Furthermore, the expression of MT2A was significantly upregulated following 4-NP exposure. Knockdown of MT2A restored the aberrant activation of the MAPK signaling pathway, elevated antioxidant capacity, ferroptosis inhibition, and ultimately the development of malignant phenotypes that induced by 4-NP in the transformed cells. Mechanistically, MT2A increased cellular antioxidant capabilities and facilitated the removal of toxic iron ions by enhancing the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNK MAPK pathways. The administration of activators and inhibitors of the MAPK pathway confirmed that the MAPK pathway mediated the 4-NP-induced suppression of ferroptosis and, ultimately, the malignant transformation of cervical epithelial cells. Overall, our findings elucidated a dynamic molecular transformation induced by prolonged exposure to 4-NP, and delineated comprehensive biological perspectives underlying 4-NP-induced cervical carcinogenesis. This offers novel theoretical underpinnings for the assessment of the carcinogenic risks associated with 4-NP.

E3 ligases and DUBs target ferroptosis: A potential therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases

Ferroptosis is a form of cell death mediated by iron and lipid peroxidation (LPO). Recent studies have provided compelling evidence to support the involvement of ferroptosis in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD). Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate ferroptosis in NDDs may improve disease management. Ferroptosis is regulated by multiple mechanisms, and different degradation pathways, including autophagy and the ubiquitinproteasome system (UPS), orchestrate the complex ferroptosis response by directly or indirectly regulating iron accumulation or lipid peroxidation. Ubiquitination plays a crucial role as a protein posttranslational modification in driving ferroptosis. Notably, E3 ubiquitin ligases (E3s) and deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) are key enzymes in the ubiquitin system, and their dysregulation is closely linked to the progression of NDDs. A growing body of evidence highlights the role of ubiquitin system enzymes in regulating ferroptosis sensitivity. However, reports on the interaction between ferroptosis and ubiquitin signaling in NDDs are scarce. In this review, we first provide a brief overview of the biological processes and roles of the UPS, summarize the core molecular mechanisms and potential biological functions of ferroptosis, and explore the pathophysiological relevance and therapeutic implications of ferroptosis in NDDs. In addition, reviewing the roles of E3s and DUBs in regulating ferroptosis in NDDs aims to provide new insights and strategies for the treatment of NDDs. These include E3- and DUB-targeted drugs and ferroptosis inhibitors, which can be used to prevent and ameliorate the progression of NDDs.

The Molecular Mechanism of ferroptosis and Its Relationship with Parkinson's Disease

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD) have complex pathogenetic mechanisms. Genetic, age, and environmental factors are all related to PD. Due to the unclear pathogenesis of PD and the lack of effective cure methods, it is urgent to find new targets for treating PD patients. Ferroptosis is a form of cell death that is reliant on iron and exhibits distinct morphological and mechanistic characteristics compared to other types of cell death. It encompasses a range of biological processes, including iron/lipid metabolism and oxidative stress. In recent years, research has found that ferroptosis plays a crucial role in the pathophysiological processes of neurodegenerative diseases and stroke. Therefore, ferroptosis is also closely related to PD, This article reviews the core mechanisms of ferroptosis and elucidates the correlation between PD and ferroptosis. In addition, new compounds that have emerged in recent years to exert anti PD effects by inhibiting the ferroptosis signaling pathway were summarized. I hope to further elaborate the relationship between ferroptosis and PD through the review of this article, and provide new strategies for developing PD treatments targeting ferroptosis.

Research trends of ferroptosis and pyroptosis in Parkinson's disease: a bibliometric analysis

Objective

This study aims to visualize the trends and hotspots in the research of "ferroptosis in PD" and "pyroptosis in PD" through bibliometric analysis from the past to 2024.

Methods

Literature was retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) from the past to February 16, 2024, and bibliometric analysis was conducted using Vosviewer and Citespace.

Results

283 and 542 papers were collected in the field of "ferroptosis in PD" and "pyroptosis in PD." The number of publications in both fields has increased yearly, especially in "ferroptosis in PD," which will become the focus of PD research. China, the United States and England had extensive exchanges and collaborations in both fields, and more than 60% of the top 10 institutions were from China. In the fields of "ferroptosis in PD" and "pyroptosis in PD," the University of Melbourne and Nanjing Medical University stood out in terms of publication numbers, citation frequency, and centrality, and the most influential journals were Cell and Nature, respectively. The keyword time zone map showed that molecular mechanisms and neurons were the research hotspots of "ferroptosis in PD" in 2023, while memory and receptor 2 were the research hotspots of "pyroptosis in PD" in 2023, which may predict the future research direction.

Conclusion

This study provides insights into the development, collaborations, research themes, hotspots, and tendencies of "ferroptosis in PD" and "pyroptosis in PD." Overall situation of these fields is available for researchers to further explore the underlying mechanisms and potential treatments.

JWA binding to NCOA4 alleviates degeneration in dopaminergic neurons through suppression of ferritinophagy in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) poses a significant challenge in neurodegenerative disorders, characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). The intricate mechanisms orchestrating DA neurodegeneration in PD are not fully understood, necessitating the exploration of innovative therapeutic approaches. Recent studies have implicated ferroptosis as a major contributor to the loss of DA neurons, revealing a complex interplay between iron accumulation and neurodegeneration. However, the sophisticated nature of this process challenges the conventional belief that mere iron removal could effectively prevent DA neuronal ferroptosis. Here, we report JWA, alternatively referred to as ARL6IP5, as a negative regulator of ferroptosis, capable of ameliorating DA neuronal loss in the context of PD. In this study, synchronized expression patterns of JWA and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in PD patients and mice were observed, underscoring the importance of JWA for DA neuronal survival. Screening of ferroptosis-related genes unraveled the engagement of iron metabolism in the JWA-dependent inhibition of DA neuronal ferroptosis. Genetic manipulation of JWA provided compelling evidence linking its neuroprotective effects to the attenuation of NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy. Molecular docking, co-immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence studies confirmed that JWA mitigated DA neuronal ferroptosis by occupying the ferritin binding site of NCOA4. Moreover, the JWA-activating compound, JAC4, demonstrated promising neuroprotective effects in cellular and animal PD models by elevating JWA expression, offering a potential avenue for neuroprotection in PD. Collectively, our work establishes JWA as a novel regulator of ferritinophagy, presenting a promising therapeutic target for addressing DA neuronal ferroptosis in PD.

Modulating α-synuclein propagation and decomposition: Implications in Parkinson's disease therapy

α-Synuclein (α-Syn) is closely related to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Under pathological conditions, the conformation of α-syn changes and different forms of α-syn lead to neurotoxicity. According to Braak stages, α-syn can propagate in different brain regions, inducing neurodegeneration and corresponding clinical manifestations through abnormal aggregation of Lewy bodies (LBs) and lewy axons in different types of neurons in PD. So far, PD lacks early diagnosis biomarkers, and treatments are mainly targeted at some clinical symptoms. There is no effective therapy to delay the progression of PD. This review first summarized the role of α-syn in physiological and pathological states, and the relationship between α-syn and PD. Then, we focused on the origin, secretion, aggregation, propagation and degradation of α-syn as well as the important regulatory factors in these processes systematically. Finally, we reviewed some potential drug candidates for alleviating the abnormal aggregation of α-syn in order to provide valuable targets for the treatment of PD to cope with the occurrence and progression of this disease.

Induction of ferroptosis by natural phenols: A promising strategy for cancer therapy

In recent years, heightened interest surrounds the exploration of natural phenols as potential agents for cancer therapy, specifically by inducing ferroptosis, a unique form of regulated cell death characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation. This review delves into the roles of key natural phenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids, curcumin, and stilbenes, in modulating ferroptosis and their underlying mechanisms. Emphasizing the significance of amino acid, lipid, and iron metabolism, the study elucidates the diverse pathways through which these phenols regulate ferroptosis. Notably, curcumin, a well-known polyphenol, exhibits multifaceted interactions with cellular components involved in ferroptosis regulation, providing a distinctive therapeutic avenue. Stilbenes, another phenolic class, demonstrate promising potential in influencing lipid metabolism and iron-dependent processes, contributing to ferroptotic cell death. Understanding the intricate interplay between these natural phenols and ferroptosis not only illuminates complex cellular regulatory networks but also unveils potential avenues for novel cancer therapies. Exploring these compounds as inducers of ferroptosis presents a promising strategy for targeted cancer treatment, capitalizing on the delicate balance between cellular metabolism and regulated cell death mechanisms. This article synthesizes current knowledge, aiming to stimulate further research into the therapeutic potential of natural phenols in the context of ferroptosis-mediated cancer therapy.

The Interplay between Ferroptosis and Neuroinflammation in Central Neurological Disorders

Central neurological disorders are significant contributors to morbidity, mortality, and long-term disability globally in modern society. These encompass neurodegenerative diseases, ischemic brain diseases, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy, depression, and more. The involved pathogenesis is notably intricate and diverse. Ferroptosis and neuroinflammation play pivotal roles in elucidating the causes of cognitive impairment stemming from these diseases. Given the concurrent occurrence of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation due to metabolic shifts such as iron and ROS, as well as their critical roles in central nervous disorders, the investigation into the co-regulatory mechanism of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation has emerged as a prominent area of research. This paper delves into the mechanisms of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in central nervous disorders, along with their interrelationship. It specifically emphasizes the core molecules within the shared pathways governing ferroptosis and neuroinflammation, including SIRT1, Nrf2, NF-κB, Cox-2, iNOS/NO·, and how different immune cells and structures contribute to cognitive dysfunction through these mechanisms. Researchers' findings suggest that ferroptosis and neuroinflammation mutually promote each other and may represent key factors in the progression of central neurological disorders. A deeper comprehension of the common pathway between cellular ferroptosis and neuroinflammation holds promise for improving symptoms and prognosis related to central neurological disorders.

COVID-19 related neurological manifestations in Parkinson's disease: has ferroptosis been a suspect?

A rising number of patient cases point to a probable link between SARS-CoV-2 infection and Parkinson's disease (PD), yet the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 affects the brain and generates neuropsychiatric symptoms in COVID-19 patients remain unknown. Ferroptosis, a distinct iron-dependent non-apoptotic type of cell death characterized by lipid peroxidation and glutathione depletion, a key factor in neurological disorders. Ferroptosis may have a pathogenic role in COVID-19, according to recent findings, however its potential contributions to COVID-19-related PD have not yet been investigated. This review covers potential paths for SARS-CoV-2 infection of the brain. Among these putative processes, ferroptosis may contribute to the etiology of COVID-19-associated PD, potentially providing therapeutic methods.

Iron toxicity, ferroptosis and microbiota in Parkinson's disease: Implications for novel targets

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Iron (Fe)-dependent programmed cell death known as ferroptosis, plays a crucial role in the etiology and progression of PD. Since SNpc is particularly vulnerable to Fe toxicity, a central role for ferroptosis in the etiology and progression of PD is envisioned. Ferroptosis, characterized by reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent accumulation of lipid peroxides, is tightly regulated by a variety of intracellular metabolic processes. Moreover, the recently characterized bi-directional interactions between ferroptosis and the gut microbiota, not only provides another window into the mechanistic underpinnings of PD but could also suggest novel interventions in this devastating disease. Here, following a brief discussion of PD, we focus on how our expanding knowledge of Fe-induced ferroptosis and its interaction with the gut microbiota may contribute to the pathophysiology of PD and how this knowledge may be exploited to provide novel interventions in PD.

Ferroptosis-related exosomal non-coding RNAs: promising targets in pathogenesis and treatment of non-malignant diseases

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of programmed cell death, introduces a novel perspective on cellular demise. This study investigates the regulatory network of exosomal non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including miRNAs, circRNAs, and lncRNAs, in ferroptosis modulation. The primary goal is to examine the pathological roles of ferroptosis-related exosomal ncRNAs, particularly in ischemic reperfusion injuries. The research reveals intricate molecular interactions governing the regulatory interplay between exosomal ncRNAs and ferroptosis, elucidating their diverse roles in different non-malignant pathological contexts. Attention is given to their impact on diseases, including cardiac, cerebral, liver, and kidney ischemic injuries, as well as lung, wound, and neuronal injuries. Beyond theoretical exploration, the study provides insights into potential therapeutic applications, emphasizing the significance of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-derived exosomes. Findings underscore the pivotal role of MSC-derived exosomal ncRNAs in modulating cellular responses related to ferroptosis regulation, introducing a cutting-edge dimension. This recognition emphasizes the importance of MSC-derived exosomes as crucial mediators with broad therapeutic implications. Insights unveil promising avenues for targeted interventions, capitalizing on the diverse roles of exosomal ncRNAs, providing a comprehensive foundation for future therapeutic strategies.

The Role of Calcium and Iron Homeostasis in Parkinson's Disease

Calcium and iron are essential elements that regulate many important processes of eukaryotic cells. Failure to maintain homeostasis of calcium and iron causes cell dysfunction or even death. PD (Parkinson's disease) is the second most common neurological disorder in humans, for which there are currently no viable treatment options or effective strategies to cure and delay progression. Pathological hallmarks of PD, such as dopaminergic neuronal death and intracellular α-synuclein deposition, are closely involved in perturbations of iron and calcium homeostasis and accumulation. Here, we summarize the mechanisms by which Ca2+ signaling influences or promotes PD progression and the main mechanisms involved in ferroptosis in Parkinson's disease. Understanding the mechanisms by which calcium and iron imbalances contribute to the progression of this disease is critical to developing effective treatments to combat this devastating neurological disorder.

The protective effects of beta-mangostin against sodium iodate-induced retinal ROS-mediated apoptosis through MEK/ERK and p53 signaling pathways

Previous studies have indicated that NaIO3 induces intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and has been used as a model for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) due to the selective retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell damage it induces. Beta-mangostin (BM) is a xanthone-type natural compound isolated from Cratoxylum arborescens. The influence of BM on NaIO3-induced oxidative stress damage in ARPE-19 cells has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we investigated how BM protects ARPE-19 cells from NaIO3-induced ROS-mediated apoptosis. Our results revealed that BM notably improved cell viability and prevented ARPE-19 cell mitochondrial dysfunction mediated-apoptosis induced by NaIO3; it was mediated by significantly reduced NaIO3-upregulated ROS, cellular H2O2 production and improved downregulated glutathione and catalase activities. Furthermore, we found that BM could suppress the expression of Bax, cleaved PARP, and cleaved caspase-3 by decreasing phosphorylation of MEK/ERK and p53 expression in NaIO3-induced ARPE-19 cells. At the same time, we also used MEK inhibitors (PD98059) to confirm the above phenomenon. Moreover, our animal experiments revealed that BM prevented NaIO3 from causing retinal deformation; it led to thicker outer and inner nuclear layers and downregulated cleaved caspase-3 expression compared to the group receiving NaIO3 only. Collectively, these results suggest that BM can protect the RPE and retina from NaIO3-induced apoptosis through ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction involving the MEK/ERK and p53 signaling pathways.