Evolution of STS ethical standards: adjudication, policy making, and education

Surgical ethics: today and tomorrow

Ethical behavior has always been deeply ingrained in surgical culture, but ethical deliberation has only recently become an important component of cardiac surgical practice. In our earlier review, we covered a range of issues including several related to informed consent, conflict of interest, professional self-regulation and innovation, among many others. This update covers several topics of interest to cardiac surgeons and cardiologists, focusing on controversial issues specific to the practice of cardiothoracic surgery: informed consent, relations with hospitals and euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. The future holds much uncertainty for cardiac surgical practice, research and culture, and we provide an update on ethical issues to serve as a platform for envisioning what is to come.