The MDMX acidic domain competes with the p53 transactivation domain for MDM2 N-terminal domain binding

Paradoxical effects on ice nucleation are intrinsic to a small winter flounder antifreeze protein

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) bind to ice in solutions, resulting in non-colligative freezing point depression; however, their effects on ice nucleation are not well understood. The predominant plasma AFP of winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) is AFP6, which is an amphiphilic alpha helix. In this study, AFP6 and modified constructs were produced as fusion proteins in Escherichia coli, subjected to proteolysis when required and purified prior to use. AFP6 and its recombinant fusion precursor generated similar thermal hysteresis and bipyramidal ice crystals, whereas an inactive mutant AFP6 produced hexagonal crystals and no hysteresis. Circular dichroism spectra of the wild-type and mutant AFP6 were consistent with an alpha helix. The effects of these proteins on ice nucleation were investigated alongside non-AFP proteins using a standard droplet freezing assay. In the presence of nucleating AgI, modest reductions in the nucleation temperature occurred with the addition of mutant AFP6, and several non-AFPs, suggesting non-specific inhibition of AgI-induced ice nucleation. In these experiments, both AFP6 and its recombinant precursor resulted in lower nucleation temperatures, consistent with an additional inhibitory effect. Conversely, in the absence of AgI, AFP6 induced ice nucleation, with no other proteins showing this effect. Nucleation by AFP6 was dose-dependent, reaching a maximum at 1.5 mM protein. Nucleation by AFP6 also required an ice-binding site, as the inactive mutant had no effect. Furthermore, the absence of nucleation by the recombinant precursor protein suggested that the fusion moiety was interfering with the formation of a surface capable of nucleating ice.