Effects of ibotenic acid lesions of the mediodorsal thalamus on memory: relationship with emotional processes in mice

Reduced volume of the mediodorsal and anteroventral thalamus is associated with anxiety in Parkinson's disease: A cross-sectional 7-tesla MRI study

BackgroundParkinson's disease (PD)-related anxiety occurs frequently and may be associated with imbalance between anxiety-related circuits. While the thalamus is a shared region of these circuits, its role in PD-related anxiety has not been explored so far.ObjectiveTo identify changes in volume of the thalamus and its subnuclei in patients with PD-related anxiety.MethodsCognitively intact PD patients (n = 105) were divided into two groups based on their score on the Parkinson anxiety scale (PAS): 31 PD patients had anxiety (Anx-PD) and 74 did not have anxiety (non-Anx-PD). Forty-five healthy control subjects were included. Participants underwent 7-Tesla MRI scanning. Using automatic segmentation, the volumes of the thalamus and its subnuclei were measured, compared between the groups and regressed on the PAS.ResultsThe volumes of the thalamus and its subnuclei did not significantly differ between the groups. However, in anxious PD patients, more severe anxiety was strongly associated with a smaller volume of the right medial thalamic subregion, specifically the right mediodorsal magnocellular nucleus and the right mediodorsal parvocellular nucleus (R = 0.63, ßPAS = -0.546, p-valuemodel = 0.007 and R = 0.60, ßPAS = -0.547, p-valuemodel = 0.016, respectively), and of the left anteroventral thalamus (R = 0.73, FDR p-valuemodel = 0.002, ßPAS = -0.407, p-valuePAS = 0.01).ConclusionsA reduced volume of the mediodorsal and anteroventral thalamus, overlapping structures between the anxiety related circuits, are associated with more severe PD-related anxiety and may explain its high prevalence in the disease.

Thalamocortical Circuit Motifs: A General Framework

The role of the thalamus in cortical sensory transmission is well known, but its broader role in cognition is less appreciated. Recent studies have shown thalamic engagement in dynamic regulation of cortical activity in attention, executive control, and perceptual decision-making, but the circuit mechanisms underlying such functionality are unknown. Because the thalamus is composed of excitatory neurons that are devoid of local recurrent excitatory connectivity, delineating long-range, input-output connectivity patterns of single thalamic neurons is critical for building functional models. We discuss this need in relation to existing organizational schemes such as core versus matrix and first-order versus higher-order relay nuclei. We propose that a new classification is needed based on thalamocortical motifs, where structure naturally informs function. Overall, our synthesis puts understanding thalamic organization at the forefront of existing research in systems and computational neuroscience, with both basic and translational applications.

Early lesion of the reticular thalamic nucleus disrupts the structure and function of the mediodorsal thalamus and prefrontal cortex

The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN), part of the thalamus, is a thin GABAergic cell layer adjacent to the relay nuclei of the dorsal thalamus. It receives input from the cortex and other thalamic nuclei and provides major inhibitory input to each thalamic nucleus, particularly the mediodorsal nucleus (MD). As the MD is important for supporting optimal cortico-thalamo-cortical interactions during brain maturation, we hypothesized that that early damage to the TRN will cause major disturbances to the development and the functioning of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the MD. Rat pups at P4 were randomized in three groups: electrolytic lesion of TRN, TRN-sham-lesion group, and the classical control group. Seven weeks later, all rats were tested with several behavioral and cognitive paradigms, and then perfused for histological and immunohistochemical studies. Results showed that TRN lesion rats exhibited reduced spontaneous activity, high level of anxiety, learning and recognition memory impairments. Besides the behavioral effects observed after early TRN lesions, our study showed significant cytoarchitectural and functional changes in the cingulate cortex, the dorsolateral and prelimbic subdivisions of the PFC, as well as in the MD. The assessment of the basal levels of neuronal activity revealed a significant reduction of the basal expression of C-Fos levels in the PFC. These experiments, which are the first to highlight the effects of early TRN lesions, provided evidence that early damage of the anterior part of the TRN leads to alterations that may control the development of the thalamocortical-corticothalamic pathways.

Roles of the medial prefrontal cortex, mediodorsal thalamus, and their combined circuit for performance of the odor span task in rats: analysis of memory capacity and foraging behavior

Working memory (WM), the capacity for short-term storage of small quantities of information for immediate use, is thought to depend on activity within the prefrontal cortex. Recent evidence indicates that the prefrontal neuronal activity supporting WM is driven by thalamocortical connections arising in mediodorsal thalamus (mdThal). However, the role of these connections has not been studied using olfactory stimuli leaving open the question of whether this circuit extends to all sensory modalities. Additionally, manipulations of the mdThal in olfactory memory tasks have yielded mixed results. In the present experiment, we investigated the role of connections between the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and mdThal in the odor span task (OST) using a pharmacological contralateral disconnection technique. Inactivation of either the mPFC or mdThal alone both significantly impaired memory performance in the OST, replicating previous findings with the mPFC and confirming that the mdThal plays an essential role in intact OST performance. Contralateral disconnection of the two structures impaired OST performance in support of the idea that the OST relies on mPFC-mdThal connections, but ipsilateral control infusions also impaired performance, complicating this interpretation. We also performed a detailed analysis of rats’ errors and foraging behavior and found a dissociation between mPFC and mdThal inactivation conditions. Inactivation of the mdThal and mPFC caused a significant reduction in the number of approaches rats made per odor, whereas only mdThal inactivation or mPFC-mdThal disconnection caused significant increases in choice latency. Our results confirm that the mdThal is necessary for performance of the OST and that it may critically interact with the mPFC to mediate OST performance. Additionally, we have provided evidence that the mPFC and mdThal play dissociable roles in mediating foraging behavior.

The Cognitive Thalamus as a Gateway to Mental Representations

Historically, the thalamus has been viewed as little more than a relay, simply transferring information to key players of the cast, the cortex and hippocampus, without providing any unique functional contribution. In recent years, evidence from multiple laboratories researching different thalamic nuclei has contradicted this idea of the thalamus as a passive structure. Dated models of thalamic functions are being pushed aside, revealing a greater and far more complex contribution of the thalamus for cognition. In this Viewpoints article, we show how recent data support novel views of thalamic functions that emphasize integrative roles in cognition, ranging from learning and memory to flexible adaption. We propose that these apparently separate cognitive functions may indeed be supported by a more general role in shaping mental representations. Several features of thalamocortical circuits are consistent with this suggested role, and we highlight how divergent and convergent thalamocortical and corticothalamic pathways may complement each other to support these functions. Furthermore, the role of the thalamus for subcortical integration is highlighted as a key mechanism for maintaining and updating representations. Finally, we discuss future areas of research and stress the importance of incorporating new experimental findings into existing knowledge to continue developing thalamic models. The presence of thalamic pathology in a number of neurological conditions reinforces the need to better understand the role of this region in cognition.

Thalamocortical Axonal Activity in Motor Cortex Exhibits Layer-Specific Dynamics during Motor Learning

The thalamus is the hub through which neural signals are transmitted from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the neocortex. However, thalamocortical axonal activity during motor learning remains largely undescribed. We conducted two-photon calcium imaging of thalamocortical axonal activity in the motor cortex of mice learning a self-initiated lever-pull task. Layer 1 (L1) axons came to exhibit activity at lever-pull initiation and termination, while layer 3 (L3) axons did so at lever-pull initiation. L1 population activity had a sequence structure related to both lever-pull duration and reproducibility. Stimulation of the substantia nigra pars reticulata activated more L1 than L3 axons, whereas deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) stimulation did the opposite. Lesions to either the dorsal striatum or the DCN impaired motor learning and disrupted temporal dynamics in both layers. Thus, layer-specific thalamocortical signals evolve with the progression of learning, which requires both the basal ganglia and cerebellar activities.

The Mediodorsal Thalamus: An Essential Partner of the Prefrontal Cortex for Cognition

Deficits in cognition are a core feature of many psychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, where the severity of such deficits is a strong predictor of long-term outcome. Impairment in cognitive domains such as working memory and behavioral flexibility has typically been associated with prefrontal cortex (PFC) dysfunction. However, there is increasing evidence that the PFC cannot be dissociated from its main thalamic counterpart, the mediodorsal thalamus (MD). Since the causal relationships between MD-PFC abnormalities and cognitive impairment, as well as the neuronal mechanisms underlying them, are difficult to address in humans, animal models have been employed for mechanistic insight. In this review, we discuss anatomical, behavioral, and electrophysiological findings from animal studies that provide a new understanding on how MD-PFC circuits support higher-order cognitive function. We argue that the MD may be required for amplifying and sustaining cortical representations under different behavioral conditions. These findings advance a new framework for the broader involvement of distributed thalamo-frontal circuits in cognition and point to the MD as a potential therapeutic target for improving cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and other disorders.

Cognitive Functions and Neurodevelopmental Disorders Involving the Prefrontal Cortex and Mediodorsal Thalamus

The mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD) has been implicated in executive functions (such as planning, cognitive control, working memory, and decision-making) because of its significant interconnectivity with the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Yet, whilst the roles of the PFC have been extensively studied, how the MD contributes to these cognitive functions remains relatively unclear. Recently, causal evidence in monkeys has demonstrated that in everyday tasks involving rapid updating (e.g., while learning something new, making decisions, or planning the next move), the MD and frontal cortex are working in close partnership. Furthermore, researchers studying the MD in rodents have been able to probe the underlying mechanisms of this relationship to give greater insights into how the frontal cortex and MD might interact during the performance of these essential tasks. This review summarizes the circuitry and known neuromodulators of the MD, and considers the most recent behavioral, cognitive, and neurophysiological studies conducted in monkeys and rodents; in total, this evidence demonstrates that MD makes a critical contribution to cognitive functions. We propose that communication occurs between the MD and the frontal cortex in an ongoing, fluid manner during rapid cognitive operations, via the means of efference copies of messages passed through transthalamic routes; the conductance of these messages may be modulated by other brain structures interconnected to the MD. This is similar to the way in which other thalamic structures have been suggested to carry out forward modeling associated with rapid motor responding and visual processing. Given this, and the marked thalamic pathophysiology now identified in many neuropsychiatric disorders, we suggest that changes in the different subdivisions of the MD and their interconnections with the cortex could plausibly give rise to a number of the otherwise disparate symptoms (including changes to olfaction and cognitive functioning) that are associated with many different neuropsychiatric disorders. In particular, we will focus here on the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia and suggest testable hypotheses about how changes to MD-frontal cortex interactions may affect cognitive processes in this disorder.

Thalamus plays a central role in ongoing cortical functioning

Several challenges to current views of thalamocortical processing are offered here. Glutamatergic pathways in thalamus and cortex are divided into two distinct classes: driver and modulator. We suggest that driver inputs are the main conduits of information and that modulator inputs modify how driver inputs are processed. Different driver sources reveal two types of thalamic relays: first order relays receive subcortical driver input (for example, retinal input to the lateral geniculate nucleus), whereas higher order relays (for example, pulvinar) receive driver input from layer 5 of cortex and participate in cortico-thalamo-cortical (or transthalamic) circuits. These transthalamic circuits represent an unappreciated aspect of cortical functioning, which I discuss here. Direct corticocortical connections are often paralleled by transthalamic ones. Furthermore, driver inputs to thalamus, both first and higher order, typically arrive via branching axons, and the transthalamic branch often innervates subcortical motor centers, leading to the suggestion that these inputs to thalamus serve as efference copies.

Behavioral Neuroadaptation to Alcohol: From Glucocorticoids to Histone Acetylation

A prime mechanism that contributes to the development and maintenance of alcoholism is the dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and the release of glucocorticoids (cortisol in humans and primates, corticosterone in rodents) from the adrenal glands. In the brain, sustained, local elevation of glucocorticoid concentration even long after cessation of chronic alcohol consumption compromises functional integrity of a circuit, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the hippocampus (HPC), and the amygdala (AMG). These structures are implicated in learning and memory processes as well as in orchestrating neuroadaptive responses to stress and anxiety responses. Thus, potentiation of anxiety-related neuroadaptation by alcohol is characterized by an abnormally AMG hyperactivity coupled with a hypofunction of the PFC and the HPC. This review describes research on molecular and epigenetic mechanisms by which alcohol causes distinct region-specific adaptive changes in gene expression patterns and ultimately leads to a variety of cognitive and behavioral impairments on prefrontal- and hippocampal-based tasks. Alcohol-induced neuroadaptations involve the dysregulation of numerous signaling cascades, leading to long-term changes in transcriptional profiles of genes, through the actions of transcription factors such as [cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)] and chromatin remodeling due to posttranslational modifications of histone proteins. We describe the role of prefrontal-HPC-AMG circuit in mediating the effects of acute and chronic alcohol on learning and memory, and region-specific molecular and epigenetic mechanisms involved in this process. This review first discusses the importance of brain region-specific dysregulation of glucocorticoid concentration in the development of alcohol dependence and describes how persistently increased glucocorticoid levels in PFC may be involved in mediating working memory impairments and neuroadaptive changes during withdrawal from chronic alcohol intake. It then highlights the role of cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling cascade and histone acetylation within the PFC and limbic structures in alcohol-induced anxiety and behavioral impairments, and how an understanding of functional alterations of these pathways might lead to better treatments for neuropsychiatric disorders.

Behavioral and cognitive changes after early postnatal lesions of the rat mediodorsal thalamus

Early insults to the thalamus result in functional and/or structural abnormalities in the cerebral cortex. However, differences in behavioral and cognitive changes after early insult are not well characterized. The present study assessed whether early postnatal damage to mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD), reciprocally interconnected with the prefrontal cortex, causes behavioral and cognitive alterations in young adult rats. Rat pups at postnatal day 4 received bilateral electrolytic lesion of MD, or a MD Sham lesion or were anesthetized controls; on recovery they were returned to their mothers until weaning. Seven weeks later, all rats were tested with the following behavioral and cognitive paradigms: T-maze test, open field test, actimetry, elevated plus maze test, social interactions test and passive avoidance test. Rats with bilateral MD damage presented with disrupted recognition memory, deficits in shifting response rules, significant hypoactivity, increased anxiety-like behavior, deficits in learning associations as well as decreased locomotor activity, and reduced social interactions compared to MD Sham lesion and anesthetized Control rats. The lesion also caused significant decreases in pyramidal cell density in three frontal cortex regions: medial infralimbic cortex, dorsolateral anterior cortex, and cingulate Cg1 cortex. The present findings suggest a functional role for MD in the postnatal maturation of affective behavior. Further some of the behavioral and cognitive alterations observed in these young adult rats after early MD lesion are reminiscent of those present in major psycho-affective disorders, such as schizophrenia in humans.

Functional heterogeneity of the limbic thalamus: From hippocampal to cortical functions

Today, the idea that the integrity of the limbic thalamus is necessary for normal memory functions is well established. However, if the study of thalamic patients emphasized the anterior and the mediodorsal thalamus as the critical thalamic loci supporting cognitive functions, clinical studies have so far failed to attribute a specific role to each of these regions. In view of these difficulties, we review here the experimental data conducted in rodents harboring specific lesions of each thalamic region. These data clearly indicate a major functional dissociation within the limbic thalamus. The anterior thalamus provides critical support for hippocampal functions due to its cardinal location in the Papez circuit, while the mediodorsal thalamus may signal relevant information in a circuit encompassing the basolateral amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. Interestingly, while clinical studies have suggested that diencephalic pathologies may disconnect the medial temporal lobe from the cortex, experimental studies conducted in rodent show how this may differently affect distinct temporo-thalamo-cortical circuits, sharing the same general organization but supporting dissociable functions.

Ciproxifan improves working memory through increased prefrontal cortex neural activity in sleep-restricted mice

Histamine receptor type 3 (H3) antagonists are promising awakening drugs for treatment of sleep disorders. However, few works have tried to identify their cognitive effects after sleep restriction and their impact on associated neural networks. To that aim, Bl/6J male mice were submitted to acute sleep restriction in a shaker apparatus that prevents sleep by transient (20-40 ms) up and down movements. Number of stimulations (2-4), and delay between 2 stimulations (100-200 ms) were randomized. Each sequence of stimulation was also randomly administered (10-30 s interval) for 20 consecutive hours during light (8 h) and dark (12 h) phases. Immediately after 20 h-sleep restriction, mice were injected with H3 antagonist (ciproxifan 3 mg/kg ip) and submitted 30-min later to a working memory (WM) task using spatial spontaneous alternation behaviour. After behavioural testing, brains were perfused for Fos immunohistochemistry to assess neuronal brain activation in the dorsal dentate gyrus (dDG) and the prefrontal cortex. Results showed that sleep restriction decreased slow wave sleep (from 35.8±1.4% to 9.2±2.7%, p<0.001) and was followed by sleep rebound (58.2±5.9%, p<0.05). Sleep restriction did not modify anxiety-like reactivity and significantly decreased WM at long (30 s) but not short (5 s) inter-trial intervals. Whereas sleep restriction failed to significantly modify immunopositive cells in vehicles, ciproxifan administration prevented WM deficits in sleep restricted mice through significant increases of Fos labelling in prelimbic, infralimbic and cingulate 2 cortex. In conclusion, ciproxifan at 3 mg/kg enhanced WM in sleep restricted mice through specific modulation of prefrontal cortex areas.

What does the mediodorsal thalamus do?

Dense amnesia can result from damage to the medial diencephalon in humans and in animals. In humans this damage is diffuse and can include the mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus. In animal models, lesion studies have confirmed the mediodorsal thalamus (MD) has a role in memory and other cognitive tasks, although the extent of deficits is mixed. Anatomical tracing studies confirm at least three different subgroupings of the MD: medial, central, and lateral, each differentially interconnected to the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Moreover, these subgroupings of the MD also receive differing inputs from other brain structures, including the basal ganglia thus the MD subgroupings form key nodes in interconnected frontal-striatal-thalamic neural circuits, integrating critical information within the PFC. We will provide a review of data collected from non-human primates and rodents after selective brain injury to the whole of the MD as well as these subgroupings to highlight the extent of deficits in various cognitive tasks. This research highlights the neural basis of memory and cognitive deficits associated with the subgroupings of the MD and their interconnected neural networks. The evidence shows that the MD plays a critical role in many varied cognitive processes. In addition, the MD is actively processing information and integrating it across these neural circuits for successful cognition. Having established that the MD is critical for memory and cognition, further research is required to understand how the MD specifically influences these cognitive processing carried out by the brain.

Working memory deficits and related disinhibition of the cAMP/PKA/CREB are alleviated by prefrontal α4β2*-nAChRs stimulation in aged mice

The present study investigates in aged mice the working memory (WM) enhancing potential of the selective α4β2* nicotinic receptor agonist S 38232 as compared with the cholinesterase inhibitor donepezil, and their effect on cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation (pCREB) as a marker of neuronal activity. We first showed that aged mice exhibit a WM deficit and an increase of pCREB in the prelimbic cortex (PL) as compared with young mice, whereas no modification appears in the CA1. Further, we showed that systemic administration of S 38232 restored WM in aged mice and alleviated PL CREB overphosphorylation. Donepezil alleviated age-related memory deficits, however, by increasing pCREB in the CA1, while pCREB in PL remained unaffected. Finally, whereas neuronal inhibition by lidocaine infusion in the PL appeared deleterious in young mice, the infusion of Rp-cAMPS (a compound known to inhibit CREB phosphorylation) or S 38232 rescued WM in aged animals. Thus, by targeting the α4β2*-nicotinic receptor of the PL, S 38232 alleviates PL CREB overphosphorylation and restores WM in aged mice, which opens new pharmacologic perspectives of therapeutic strategy.

Membrane mineralocorticoid but not glucocorticoid receptors of the dorsal hippocampus mediate the rapid effects of corticosterone on memory retrieval

This study was aimed at determining the type of the glucocorticoid membrane receptors (mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) or glucocorticoid receptors (GRs)) in the dorsal hippocampus (dHPC) involved in the rapid effects of corticosterone or stress on memory retrieval. For that purpose, we synthesized corticosterone-3-O-carboxymethyloxime-bovine serum albumin conjugate (Cort-3CMO-BSA) conjugate (a high MW complex that cannot cross the cell membrane) totally devoid of free corticosterone, stable in physiological conditions. In a first experiment, we evidenced that an acute stress (electric footshocks) induced both a dHPC corticosterone rise measured by microdialysis and memory retrieval impairment on delayed alternation task. Both the endocrinal and cognitive effects of stress were blocked by metyrapone (a corticosterone synthesis inhibitor). In a second experiment, we showed that bilateral injections of either corticosterone or Cort-3CMO-BSA in dHPC 15 min before memory testing produced impairments similar to those resulting from acute stress. Furthermore, we showed that anisomycin (a protein synthesis inhibitor) failed to block the deleterious effect of Cort-3CMO-BSA on memory. In a third experiment, we evidenced that intra-hippocampal injection of RU-28318 (MR antagonist) but not of RU-38486 (GR antagonist) totally blocked the Cort-3CMO-BSA-induced memory retrieval deficit. In a fourth experiment, we demonstrated that RU-28318 administered 15 min before stress blocked the stress-induced memory impairments when behavioral testing occurred 15 min but not 60 min after stress. Overall, this study provides strong in vivo evidence that the dHPC membrane GRs, mediating the rapid and non-genomic effects of acute stress on memory retrieval, are of MR but not GR type.

Vasopressin innervation of the mouse (Mus musculus) brain and spinal cord

The neuropeptide vasopressin (AVP) has been implicated in the regulation of numerous physiological and behavioral processes. Although mice have become an important model for studying this regulation, there is no comprehensive description of AVP distribution in the mouse brain and spinal cord. With C57BL/6 mice, we used immunohistochemistry to corroborate the location of AVP-containing cells and to define the location of AVP-containing fibers throughout the mouse central nervous system. We describe AVP-immunoreactive (-ir) fibers in midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord areas, which have not previously been reported in mice, including innervation of the ventral tegmental area, dorsal and median raphe, lateral and medial parabrachial, solitary, ventrolateral periaqueductal gray, and interfascicular nuclei. We also provide a detailed description of AVP-ir innervation in heterogenous regions such as the amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and ventral forebrain. In general, our results suggest that, compared with other species, the mouse has a particularly robust and widespread distribution of AVP-ir fibers, which, as in other species, originates from a number of different cell groups in the telencephalon and diencephalon. Our data also highlight the robust nature of AVP innervation in specific regulatory nuclei, such as the ventral tegmental area and dorsal raphe nucleus among others, that are implicated in the regulation of many behaviors.

S 18986 reverses spatial working memory impairments in aged mice: comparison with memantine

RATIONALE

Normal or pathological ageing is characterized by working-memory dysfunction paired with a marked reduction in several neurotransmitters activity. The development of therapeutic strategy centered on the glutamatergic system known to bear a critical role in cognitive functions, is therefore of major importance in the treatment of mild forms of AD or age-related memory dysfunctions.

OBJECTIVES

In Experiment 1, we investigated the effects of ageing on spatial working memory measured by sequential alternation (SA). Thus, the decay of alternation rates over a series of trials separated by varying intertrial temporal intervals (ITI, from 5 sec to 180 sec) was studied in mice of different age groups. In Experiment 2, we investigated the memory-enhancing potential of S 18986--a modulator of AMPA receptors--on age-related SA impairments, in comparison with memantine--an antagonist of NMDA receptors--.

RESULTS

In Experiment 1, aged mice responded at chance with shorter ITI's and exhibited greater levels of interference in the SA task as compared to young adult mice. In Experiment 2, (1) S 18986 at 0.03 and 0.1 mg/kg reversed the memory deficit in aged mice but did not modify performance in young adult mice; (2) memantine at 10 mg/kg also increased SA rates in aged mice but did not improve performance in young adult mice.

CONCLUSION

The SA task is a useful tool to reveal age-induced time-dependent working memory impairments. As compared to memantine, S 18986--a compound targeting AMPA receptors--contributes a valuable therapy in the treatment of age-related cognitive dysfunctions or mild forms of AD.

The role of mediodorsal thalamus in temporal differentiation of reward-guided actions

The mediodorsal thalamus (MD) is a crucial component of the neural network involved in the learning and generation of goal-directed actions. A series of experiments reported here examined the contributions of MD to the temporal differentiation of reward-guided actions. In Experiment 1, we trained rats on a discrete-trial, fixed-criterion temporal differentiation task, in which only lever presses exceeding a threshold duration value were rewarded. Pre-training MD lesions impaired temporal differentiation of action duration, by increasing the dispersion of the duration distribution. Post-training MD lesions also impaired differentiation, but by reducing the average emitted press durations, thus shifting the distribution without increasing the dispersion. In Experiment 2, we trained rats to space their lever pressing above criterion inter-press-intervals in order to earn rewards. Both pre-training and post-training MD lesions impaired the differentiation of inter-press-intervals. These results show that MD plays an important role in the acquisition and expression of action differentiation.

The circuitry of atypical absence seizures in GABA(B)R1a transgenic mice

The objective of the current study was to determine the origin of the slow spike and wave discharges (SSWD) in the transgenic mouse with postnatal over-expression of the GABA(B) receptor subunit R1a (GABA(B)R1a(tg)), a mutant animal with a characteristic phenotype consisting of atypical absence seizures and cognitive dysfunction. Using simultaneous electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings from cortical and depth electrodes in freely moving GABA(B)R1a(tg) mice, we showed that the SSWD in this model of atypical absence seizures arise exclusively from midline thalamus (MT), reticular nucleus of the thalamus (nRT), and the CA1 region of the hippocampus. Lesioning of the MT and nRT with ibotenic acid abolished SSWD. Microinjection of the GABA(B) receptor agonist, (-) baclofen, into MT and nRT exacerbated, and the GABA(B)R antagonist, CGP 35348 abolished, SSWD in the GABA(B)R1a(tg) mice. These data suggest that the nRT and MT are necessary for the generation of SSWD in the GABA(B)R1a(tg) model of atypical absence seizures, and indicate that GABA(B)R-mediated mechanisms within thalamus are necessary for the genesis of SSWD in atypical absence seizures. A putative cortico-thalamo-hippocampal circuit is proposed to explain the unique electrographic findings, ictal behavior, pharmacology, and impairment of cognition that characterize atypical absence seizures.

Mediodorsal thalamic lesions block the stress-induced inversion of serial memory retrieval pattern in mice

This study examines the effects of ibotenic acid lesions of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD) on serial contextual memory retrieval in non-stress and stress conditions. Independent groups of mice learned two successive contextual serial discriminations (D1 and D2) in a four-hole board. The discriminations differed each by the color and texture of the floor. Twenty-four hours later, memory testing occurred in independent groups of mice on one of the two floors of the initial acquisition session. Half of the subjects received three electric footschocks (0.9mA, 2s) 5min prior to testing. Results showed that (i) stress induced a plasma corticosterone rise of same magnitude in sham-operated and MD-lesioned mice; (ii) non-stressed sham-operated mice accurately remembered D1 but not D2, whereas stressed sham-operated animals remembered D2 but not D1; (iii) non-stressed MD-lesioned mice exhibited a memory retrieval pattern similar to that observed in non-stressed sham-operated mice; (iv) however, the stress-induced inversion of the memory retrieval pattern was not observed in MD animals. The effects of MD lesions on memory retrieval in this task are similar to those observed in earlier studies in prefrontal cortex or amygdala-lesioned mice [Chauveau F, Piérard C, Coutan M, Drouet I, Liscia P, Béracochéa D. Prefrontal cortex or basolateral amygdala lesions blocked the stress-induced inversion of serial memory pattern in mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2008;90:395-403]; they are however in sharp contrast with mice exhibiting hippocampal lesions [Chauveau F, Pierard C, Tronche C, Coutan M, Drouet I, Liscia P, et al. The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are differentially involved in serial memory retrieval in non-stress and stress condition. Neurobiol Learn Mem; in press; Chauveau F, Pierard C, Tronche C, Coutan M, Drouet I, Liscia P, et al. Rapid stress-induced corticosterone rise in the hippocampus reverses serial memory retrieval pattern. Hippocampus; in press]. Overall, the present findings highlight the involvement of the MD in an AMG/PFC system mediating the rapid effects of stress on serial memory retrieval.

Neurotoxic lesions of the thalamic reuniens or mediodorsal nucleus in rats affect non-mnemonic aspects of watermaze learning

Rats with bilateral neurotoxic reuniens (RE), mediodorsal (MD), hippocampal (HIPP) or sham (SH) lesions were tested in a standard watermaze task, together with unoperated rats. RE-rats and SH-controls readily learned to swim directly to a hidden platform. In contrast, MD-rats displayed a transient deficit characterized initially by thigmotaxis. Like in previous studies, HIPP-rats had long latencies throughout training and displayed more random swims than the other groups. In a memory probe test with the platform removed, SH- and RE-rats approached the correct location relatively directly but, whereas SH-controls persistently searched in the training quadrant, RE-rats switched to searching all over the pool. The MD-group swam in loops to the platform, but then displayed persistent searching in the training quadrant. The HIPP-group performed at chance. These distinct patterns indicate that, although their search strategies were different, RE- and MD-rats had acquired sufficient knowledge about the platform location and could recall information in the probe test. All groups performed well in a subsequent cue test with a visible platform, with RE-rats initially escaping faster than the SH- and HIPP-groups, and MD-rats improving from an initially poorer level of performance to control level. This indicates that there were no sensorimotor or motivational deficits associated with any of the lesions. In conclusion, while the RE and MD nuclei seem not to be critical for the learning and memory of a standard watermaze task, they may contribute to non-mnemonic strategy shifting when animals are challenged in ways that do not occur during training.

Induction of c-Fos expression in the mammillary bodies, anterior thalamus and dorsal hippocampus after fear conditioning

The aim of the present study was to provide further evidence on the role of particular subdivisions of the mammillary bodies, anterior thalamus and dorsal hippocampus to contextual and auditory fear conditioning. We used c-Fos expression as a marker of neuronal activation to compare rats that received tone-footshock pairings in a distinctive context (conditioned group) to rats being exposed to both the context and the auditory CS without receiving footshocks (unconditioned group), and naïve rats that were only handled. Fos immunoreactivity was significantly increased only in the anterodorsal thalamic nucleus and the lateral mammillary nucleus of the conditioned group. However, the dorsal hippocampus showed the highest density of c-Fos positive nuclei in the naïve group as compared to the other groups. Together, our data support previous studies indicating a particular involvement of the mammillary bodies and anterior thalamus in fear conditioning.

Feeding and systemic D-amphetamine increase extracellular acetylcholine in the medial thalamus: a possible reward enabling function

Acetylcholine neurons that project forward from the midbrain are known to enable dopaminergic reward functions in the ventral tegmental area. The question is whether acetylcholine might also be released in the mediodorsal thalamus for the same general purposes. Rats with a microdialysis probe lodged in the mediodorsal thalamus were allowed to eat chow for 20 min after 16-h food deprivation or were given varying doses of D-amphetamine when fed ad libitum. The result in both cases was a significant increase in extracellular acetylcholine. During feeding, acetylcholine increased to 177% of baseline. In response to d-amphetamine (2.5 mg/kg), acetylcholine increased to 184%, and with a higher dose (5 mg/kg) to 400% of baseline. It is concluded that midbrain projections to limbic portions of the thalamus provide acetylcholine for behavioral activation. This cholinergic function theoretically plays a role in enabling the limbic circuits that pass through the thalamus for reinforcement of feeding and psychostimulant abuse.

Odour–place paired-associate learning and limbic thalamus: Comparison of anterior, lateral and medial thalamic lesions

Several subregions in the limbic thalamus have been suggested as the key locus for diencephalic amnesia, including the anterior thalamic nuclei, intralaminar nuclei and mediodorsal nuclei. There is, however, no consensus as to a single critical site and recent research has suggested instead that different thalamic areas may contribute to diencephalic amnesia in subtly different ways. This study compared the effects of lesions to anterior (AT), lateral (LT) and posteromedial (MT) aggregates of thalamic nuclei on Gilbert and Kesner's [Gilbert, PE, Kesner, RP. Role of the rodent hippocampus in paired-associate learning involving associations between a stimulus and a spatial location. Behav Neurosci 2002;116(1):63-71; Gilbert, PE, Kesner, RP. Localization of function within the dorsal hippocampus: the role of the CA3 subregion in paired-associate learning. Behav Neurosci 2003;117(6):1385-94] paired-associate task, in which rats were postoperatively trained to form an arbitrary association between odours and spatial locations in a circular open field. Both AT and LT lesions, but not MT lesions, severely impaired odour-place paired-associate learning. Probe trials revealed that the rats were not using specific location information after acquisition training. All groups were able to learn non-associative odour and place discrimination tasks quickly, with only the AT group showing delayed acquisition. This study provides the first direct comparison of different thalamic lesions on paired-associate learning and new evidence on the importance of the LT region in learning and memory. The results support the notion that injury to both the AT and LT subregions of the thalamus may each be major contributors to diencephalic amnesia. There is need for traditional models of memory function to take greater account of the contributions of thalamic nuclei.