Anxiolytic effect of neurotensin microinjection into the ventral pallidum

Integrating network pharmacology and transcriptomic omics reveals that akebia saponin D attenuates neutrophil extracellular traps-induced neuroinflammation via NTSR1/PKAc/PAD4 pathway after intracerebral hemorrhage

Neutrophils and their production of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) significantly contribute to neuroinflammation and brain damage after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Although Akebia saponin D (ASD) demonstrates strong anti-inflammatory activities and blood-brain barrier permeability, its role in regulating NETs formation and neuroinflammation following ICH is uncharted. Our research focused on unraveling the influence of ASD on neuroinflammation mediated by NETs and the mechanisms involved. We found that increased levels of peripheral blood neutrophils post-ICH are correlated with worse prognostic outcomes. Through network pharmacology, we identified ASD as a promising therapeutic target for ICH. ASD administration significantly improved neurobehavioral performance and decreased NETs production in neutrophils. Furthermore, ASD was shown to upregulate the membrane protein NTSR1 and activate the cAMP signaling pathway, confirmed through transcriptome sequencing, western blot, and immunofluorescence. Interestingly, the NTSR1 inhibitor SR48692 significantly nullified ASD's anti-NETs effects and dampened cAMP pathway activation. Mechanistically, suppression of PKAc via H89 negated ASD's anti-NETs effects but did not affect NTSR1. Our study suggests that ASD may reduce NETs formation and neuroinflammation, potentially involving the NTSR1/PKAc/PAD4 pathway post-ICH, underlining the potential of ASD in mitigating neuroinflammation through its anti-NETs properties.

Protective Role and Functional Engineering of Neuropeptides in Depression and Anxiety: An Overview

Behavioral disorders, such as anxiety and depression, are prevalent globally and touch children and adults on a regular basis. Therefore, it is critical to comprehend how these disorders are affected. It has been demonstrated that neuropeptides can influence behavior, emotional reactions, and behavioral disorders. This review highlights the majority of the findings demonstrating neuropeptides' behavioral role and functional engineering in depression and anxiety. Gut-brain peptides, hypothalamic releasing hormone peptides, opioid peptides, and pituitary hormone peptides are the four major groups of neuropeptides discussed. Some neuropeptides appear to promote depression and anxiety-like symptoms, whereas others seem to reduce it, all depending on the receptors they are acting on and on the brain region they are localized in. The data supplied here are an excellent starting point for future therapy interventions aimed at treating anxiety and depression.

Ventral pallidal regulation of motivated behaviors and reinforcement

The interconnected nuclei of the ventral basal ganglia have long been identified as key regulators of motivated behavior, and dysfunction of this circuit is strongly implicated in mood and substance use disorders. The ventral pallidum (VP) is a central node of the ventral basal ganglia, and recent studies have revealed complex VP cellular heterogeneity and cell- and circuit-specific regulation of reward, aversion, motivation, and drug-seeking behaviors. Although the VP is canonically considered a relay and output structure for this circuit, emerging data indicate that the VP is a central hub in an extensive network for reward processing and the regulation of motivation that extends beyond classically defined basal ganglia borders. VP neurons respond temporally faster and show more advanced reward coding and prediction error processing than neurons in the upstream nucleus accumbens, and regulate the activity of the ventral mesencephalon dopamine system. This review will summarize recent findings in the literature and provide an update on the complex cellular heterogeneity and cell- and circuit-specific regulation of motivated behaviors and reinforcement by the VP with a specific focus on mood and substance use disorders. In addition, we will discuss mechanisms by which stress and drug exposure alter the functioning of the VP and produce susceptibility to neuropsychiatric disorders. Lastly, we will outline unanswered questions and identify future directions for studies necessary to further clarify the central role of VP neurons in the regulation of motivated behaviors. Significance: Research in the last decade has revealed a complex cell- and circuit-specific role for the VP in reward processing and the regulation of motivated behaviors. Novel insights obtained using cell- and circuit-specific interrogation strategies have led to a major shift in our understanding of this region. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the VP in which we integrate novel findings with the existing literature and highlight the emerging role of the VP as a linchpin of the neural systems that regulate motivation, reward, and aversion. In addition, we discuss the dysfunction of the VP in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Molecular, Circuit, and Stress Response Characterization of Ventral Pallidum Npas1-Neurons

Altered activity of the ventral pallidum (VP) underlies disrupted motivation in stress and drug exposure. The VP is a very heterogeneous structure composed of many neuron types with distinct physiological properties and projections. Neuronal PAS 1-positive (Npas1+) VP neurons are thought to send projections to brain regions critical for motivational behavior. While Npas1+ neurons have been characterized in the globus pallidus external, there is limited information on these neurons in the VP. To address this limitation, we evaluated the projection targets of the VP Npas1+ neurons and performed RNA-sequencing on ribosome-associated mRNA from VP Npas1+ neurons to determine their molecular identity. Finally, we used a chemogenetic approach to manipulate VP Npas1+ neurons during social defeat stress (SDS) and behavioral tasks related to anxiety and motivation in Npas1-Cre mice. We used a similar approach in females using the chronic witness defeat stress (CWDS). We identified VP Npas1+ projections to the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial and lateral habenula, lateral hypothalamus, thalamus, medial and lateral septum, and periaqueductal gray area. VP Npas1+ neurons displayed distinct translatome representing distinct biological processes. Chemogenetic activation of hM3D(Gq) receptors in VP Npas1+ neurons increased susceptibility to a subthreshold SDS and anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze and open field while the activation of hM4D(Gi) receptors in VP Npas1+ neurons enhanced resilience to chronic SDS and CWDS. Thus, the activity of VP Npas1+ neurons modulates susceptibility to social stressors and anxiety-like behavior. Our studies provide new information on VP Npas1+ neuron circuitry, molecular identity, and their role in stress response.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ventral pallidum (VP) is a structure connected to both reward-related and aversive brain centers. It is a key brain area that signals the hedonic value of natural rewards. Disruption in the VP underlies altered motivation in stress and substance use disorder. However, VP is a very heterogeneous area with multiple neuron subtypes. This study characterized the projection pattern and molecular signatures of VP Neuronal PAS 1-positive (Npas1+) neurons. We further used tools to alter receptor signaling in VP Npas1+ neurons in stress to demonstrate a role for these neurons in stress behavioral outcomes. Our studies have implications for understanding brain cell type identities and their role in brain disorders, such as depression, a serious disorder that is precipitated by stressful events.

Effect of D1- and D2-like Dopamine Receptor Antagonists on the Rewarding and Anxiolytic Effects of Neurotensin in the Ventral Pallidum

Background: Neurotensin (NT) acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in the central nervous system. It was shown previously that NT in the ventral pallidum (VP) has rewarding and anxiolytic effects. NT exerts its effect in interaction with dopamine (DA) receptors in numerous brain areas; however, this has not yet been investigated in the VP. The aim of this study was to examine whether the inhibition of D1-like and D2-like DA receptors of the VP can modify the above mentioned effects of NT. Methods: Microinjection cannulas were implanted by means of stereotaxic operations into the VP of male Wistar rats. The rewarding effect of NT was examined by means of a conditioned place preference test. Anxiety was investigated with an elevated plus maze test. To investigate the possible interaction, D1-like DA receptor antagonist SCH23390 or D2-like DA receptor antagonist sulpiride were microinjected prior to NT. All of the drugs were also injected independently to analyze their effects alone. Results: In the present experiments, both the rewarding and anxiolytic effects of NT in the VP were prevented by both D1-like and D2-like DA receptor antagonists. Administered on their own, the antagonists did not influence reward and anxiety. Conclusion: Our present results show that the activity of the D1-like and D2-like DA receptors of the VP is a necessary requirement for both the rewarding and anxiolytic effects of NT.

Neuropeptide Y, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and neurokinin A in brain regions of HAB rats correlate with anxiety-like behaviours

Anxiety disorders are pervasive psychiatric disorders causing great suffering. The high (HAB) and low (LAB) anxiety-related behaviour rats were selectively bred to investigate neurobiological correlates of anxiety. We compared the level of neuropeptides relevant for anxiety- and depression-related behaviours in selected brain regions of HAB and LAB rats. Increased anxiety and depression-like behaviours of male and female HAB rats in the elevated plus-maze and forced swim tests were accompanied by elevated levels of neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the prefrontal (PFC), frontal (FC) and cingulate cortex (CCx), the striatum, and periaqueductal grey (PAG). Moreover, HAB rats displayed sex-dependent, elevated levels of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in PFC, FC, CCx, hippocampus, and PAG. Higher neurokinin A (NKA) levels were detected in CCx, striatum, and PAG in HAB males and in CCx and hypothalamus in HAB females. Increased neurotensin was detected in CCx and PAG in HAB males and in hypothalamus in HAB females. Elevated corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) levels appeared in female HAB hypothalamus. Significant correlations were found between anxiety-like behaviour and NPY, CGRP, NKA, and neurotensin, particularly with NPY in CCx and striatum, CGRP in FC and hippocampus, and NKA in entorhinal cortex. This is the first report of NPY, CGRP, NKA, Neurotensin, and CRH measurements in brain regions of HAB and LAB rats, which showed widespread NPY and CGRP alterations in cortical regions, with NKA and neurotensin changes localised in sub-cortical areas. The results may contribute to elucidate pathophysiological mechanisms underlying anxiety and depression and should facilitate identifying novel therapeutic targets.

Neurotensin and Xenin Show Positive Correlations With Perceived Stress, Anxiety, Depressiveness and Eating Disorder Symptoms in Female Obese Patients

Objective

Neurotensin and xenin are two closely related anorexigenic neuropeptides synthesized in the small intestine that exert diverse peripheral and central functions. Both act via the neurotensin-1-receptor. In animal models of obesity reduced central concentrations of these peptides have been found. Dysregulations of the acute and chronic stress response are associated with development and maintenance of obesity. Until now, associations of both peptides with stress, anxiety, depressiveness, and eating disorder symptoms have not been investigated. The aim of the present study was to examine associations of neurotensin and xenin with these psychological characteristics under conditions of obesity.

Materials and Methods

From 2010 to 2016 we consecutively enrolled 160 inpatients (63 men and 97 women), admitted due to obesity and its mental and somatic comorbidities. Blood withdrawal und psychometric tests (PSQ-20, GAD-7, PHQ-9, and EDI-2) occurred within one week after admission. We measured levels of neurotensin and xenin in plasma by ELISA.

Results

Mean body mass index was 47.2 ± 9.5 kg/m². Concentrations of neurotensin and xenin positively correlated with each other (women: r = 0.788, p < 0.001; men: r = 0.731, p < 0.001) and did not significantly differ between sexes (p > 0.05). Women generally displayed higher psychometric values than men (PSQ-20: 58.2 ± 21.7 vs. 47.0 ± 20.8, p = 0.002; GAD-7: 9.7 ± 5.8 vs. 7.1 ± 5.3, p = 0.004; PHQ-9: 11.6 ± 6.6 vs. 8.8 ± 5.9, p = 0.008; EDI-2: 50.5 ± 12.8 vs. 39.7 ± 11.9, p < 0.001). Only women showed positive correlations of both neuropeptides with stress (neurotensin: r = 0.231, p = 0.023; xenin: r = 0.254, p = 0.013), anxiety (neurotensin: r = 0.265, p = 0.009; xenin: r = 0.257, p = 0.012), depressiveness (neurotensin: r = 0.281, p = 0.006; xenin: r = 0.241, p = 0.019) and eating disorder symptoms (neurotensin: r = 0.276, p = 0.007; xenin: r = 0.26, p = 0.011), whereas, men did not (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

Neurotensin and xenin plasma levels of female obese patients are positively correlated with perceived stress, anxiety, depressiveness, and eating disorder symptoms. These associations could be influenced by higher prevalence of mental disorders in women and by sex hormones. In men, no correlations were observed, which points toward a sex-dependent regulation.

Neurotensin 1 receptor in the prelimbic cortex regulates anxiety-like behavior in rats

The central neurotensin system has been implicated in reward, memory processes, also in the regulation of anxiety. However, the neural substrates where neurotensin acts to regulate anxiety have not been fully identified. The prelimbic region of medial prefrontal cortex (PrL) holds a key position in the modulation of anxiety-related behaviors and expresses neurotensin 1 receptor (NTS1). This study investigated the effects of activation or blockade of NTS1 in the PrL on anxiety-like behaviors of rats. Our results demonstrated that infusion of a selective NTS1 agonist or neurotensin into the PrL produced anxiogenic-like effects. Administration of a NTS1 antagonist into the PrL did not affect anxiety-like behaviors of normal rats, but attenuated anxiogenic effects induced by restraint stress. Moreover, we employed molecular approaches to downregulate the expression of NTS1 in the PrL, and found that downregulation of NTS1 in the PrL induced anxiolytic effects in restraint stress rats, also confirming the pharmacological results. Together, these findings suggest that NTS1 in the PrL is actively involved in the regulation of anxiety.

Mice with Sort1 deficiency display normal cognition but elevated anxiety-like behavior

Exposure to stressful life events plays a central role in the development of mood disorders in vulnerable individuals. However, the mechanisms that link mood disorders to stress are poorly understood. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has long been implicated in positive regulation of depression and anxiety, while its precursor (proBDNF) recently showed an opposing effect on such mental illnesses. P75(NTR) and sortilin are co-receptors of proBDNF, however, the role of these receptors in mood regulation is not established. Here, we aimed to investigate the role of sortilin in regulating mood-related behaviors and its role in the proBDNF-mediated mood abnormality in mice. We found that sortilin was up-regulated in neocortex (by 78.3%) and hippocampus (by 111%) of chronically stressed mice as assessed by western blot analysis. These changes were associated with decreased mobility in the open field test and increased depression-like behavior in the forced swimming test. We also found that sortilin deficiency in mice resulted in hyperlocomotion in the open field test and increased anxiety-like behavior in both the open field and elevated plus maze tests. No depression-like behavior in the forced swimming test and no deficit in spatial cognition in the Morris water maze test were found in the Sort1-deficient mice. Moreover, the intracellular and extracellular levels of mature BDNF and proBDNF were not changed when sortilin was absent in vivo and in vitro. Finally, we found that both WT and Sort1-deficient mice injected with proBDNF in lateral ventricle displayed increased depression-like behavior in the forced swimming test but not anxiety-like behaviors in the open field and elevated plus maze tests. The present study suggests that sortilin functions as a negative regulator of mood performance and can be a therapeutic target for the treatment of mental illness.