Caffeine exposure during rat brain development causes memory impairment in a sex selective manner that is offset by caffeine consumption throughout life

Caffeine intake during lactation has a sex-dependent effect on the hippocampal excitatory/inhibitory balance and pups' behavior

During early life, disruptions in glutamatergic and GABAergic synapse development in the hippocampus may contribute to several neurodevelopmental disorders, including cognitive deficits and psychiatric disorders. Caffeine is the most consumed psychoactive drug in the world, and previous work from our group has shown that caffeine disrupts visual system connections at different stages of development. This work aimed to investigate the effects of caffeine consumption during lactation in the glutamatergic and GABAergic synaptic markers in the hippocampus and on the behavior of rat offspring. We found that maternal caffeine intake significantly reduced GluN1 subunits of the NMDA receptor, increased the GluA1/GluA2 ratio of AMPA receptor in the dorsal hippocampus, and decreased GAD content in female pups' ventral hippocampus. On the other hand, an increase in GluN1/GluN2b subunits, a decrease in GAD content in the dorsal hippocampus, and a reduction of the GluA1 content in the ventral hippocampus were observed in male pups. In addition, changes in the behavior of the offspring submitted to indirect caffeine consumption were also sex-dependent, with females developing anxiety-like behavior and males showing anxiety-like behavior and hyper-locomotion. These results highlight that maternal caffeine intake promotes changes in the hippocampal excitatory and inhibitory balance and offspring behavior in a sex-dependent manner, suggesting that the population should be alerted to reduced caffeine consumption by breastfeeding mothers.

The association of caffeine and nandrolone decanoate modulates aversive memory and nociception in rats

Caffeine and anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are commonly used to improve muscle mass and athletic performance. Nandrolone Decanoate (ND) is one of the most abused AAS worldwide, leading to behavioral changes in both humans and rodents. Caffeine, the most widely consumed psychostimulant globally, is present in various thermogenic and gym supplements. Low and moderate doses of caffeine antagonize adenosine receptors and have been linked to improved memory and pain relief. We have previously demonstrated that consuming caffeine prevents the risk-taking behavior triggered by nandrolone. In this study, we aimed to investigate the long-term effects of ND and caffeine, either alone or in combination, on passive avoidance memory and nociception. We used the step-down and hot-plate tasks in male and female Lister Hooded rats. Our results confirmed the antinociceptive effect of caffeine and indicated that chronic administration of the ND-caffeine association promotes the evocation of aversive memory in female rats.

Genotoxic effects of caffeine in female mice exposed during pregnancy and lactation period and their offspring

Caffeine is a widely consumed substance, and there is a discussion about its effects when ingested by women during pregnancy and lactation. We aimed to identify the genotoxic effects of caffeine in female mice that consumed it during pregnancy and lactation periods and its consequences in their offspring. Thirty-six couples of Swiss mice received water or caffeine (0.3 and 1.0 mg/mL) treatment during pregnancy and lactation. The male and female offspring were divided into 12 groups according to the treatment administered to the female mice. Genotoxicity was assessed using the comet assay and the micronucleus test. Both doses of caffeine showed genotoxic effects in pregnant and lactating mice groups compared to groups not administered caffeine. In relation to offspring, it can be observed that females and males of the offspring had low weight in early life. In both female and male offspring, genotoxicity was detected in the blood, liver, and kidney tissues. Thus, from the present study, we can suggest that the caffeine consumed by female mice during the periods of pregnancy and lactation led to genotoxic effects in their offspring.

Adenosine receptors participate in anabolic-androgenic steroid-induced changes on risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors in male and female rats

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) and caffeine can induce several behavioral alterations in humans and rodents. Administration of nandrolone decanoate is known to affect defensive responses to aversive stimuli, generally decreasing inhibitory control and increasing aggressivity but whether caffeine intake influences behavioral changes induced by AAS is unknown. The present study aimed to investigate behavioral effects of caffeine (a non-selective antagonist of adenosine receptors) alone or combined with nandrolone decanoate (one of the most commonly AAS abused) in female and male Lister Hooded rats. Our results indicated that chronic administration of nandrolone decanoate (10 mg/kg, i.m., once a week for 8 weeks) decreased risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors (in the elevated plus maze test), regardless of sex. These effects were prevented by combined caffeine intake (0.1 g/L, p.o., ad libitum). Overall, the present study heralds a key role for caffeine intake in the modulation of nandrolone decanoate-induced behavioral changes in rats, suggesting adenosine receptors as candidate targets to manage impact of AAS on brain function and behavior.

Effects of Chronic Caffeine Consumption on Synaptic Function, Metabolism and Adenosine Modulation in Different Brain Areas

Adenosine receptors mainly control synaptic function, and excessive activation of adenosine receptors may worsen the onset of many neurological disorders. Accordingly, the regular intake of moderate doses of caffeine antagonizes adenosine receptors and affords robust neuroprotection. Although caffeine intake alters brain functional connectivity and multi-omics analyses indicate that caffeine intake modifies synaptic and metabolic processes, it is unclear how caffeine intake affects behavior, synaptic plasticity and its modulation by adenosine. We now report that male mice drinking caffeinated water (0.3 g/L) for 2 weeks were behaviorally indistinguishable (locomotion, mood, memory) from control mice (drinking water) and displayed superimposable synaptic plasticity (long-term potentiation) in different brain areas (hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala). Moreover, there was a general preservation of the efficiency of adenosine A₁ and A_2A receptors to control synaptic transmission and plasticity, although there was a tendency for lower levels of endogenous adenosine ensuring A₁ receptor-mediated inhibition. In spite of similar behavioral and neurophysiological function, caffeine intake increased the energy charge and redox state of cortical synaptosomes. This increased metabolic competence likely involved a putative increase in the glycolytic rate in synapses and a prospective greater astrocyte-synapse lactate shuttling. It was concluded that caffeine intake does not trigger evident alterations of behavior or of synaptic plasticity but increases the metabolic competence of synapses, which might be related with the previously described better ability of animals consuming caffeine to cope with deleterious stimuli triggering brain dysfunction.

cAMP/PKA-CREB-BDNF signaling pathway in hippocampus of rats subjected to chemically-induced phenylketonuria

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn error disease in phenylalanine metabolism resulting from defects in the stages of converting phenylalanine to tyrosine. Although the pathophysiology of PKU is not elucidated yet, the toxic effect of phenylalanine on the brain causes severe mental retardation. In relation to learning and memory, the hippocampal PKA / CREB / BDNF pathway may play a role in learning deficits in PKU patients. This study aimed to investigate PKA/CREB/BDNF pathway in hippocampus of chemically induced PKU rats with regard to gender. Sprague-Dawley rat pups were randomized into two groups of both genders. To chemically induce PKU, animals received subcutaneous administration of phenylalanine (5.2 mmol / g) plus p-chlorophenylalanine, phenylalanine hydroxylase inhibitor (0.9 mmol / g); control animals received 0.9% NaCl. Injections started on the 6th day and continued until the 21st day after which locomotor activity, learning and memory were tested. In male PKU rats, locomotor activity was reduced. There were no differences in learning and memory performances of male and female PKU rats. In PKU rats, pCREB / CREB levels in males was unchanged while it decreased in females. Elevated PKA activity, BDNF levels and decreased pCREB/CREB ratio found in female PKU rats were not replicated in PKU males in which BDNF is decreased. Our results display that in this disease model a gender specific differential activation of cAMP/PKA-CREB-BDNF signaling pathway in hippocampus occurs investigation of which can help us to a better understanding of disease pathophysiology.

Caffeine Consumption plus Physical Exercise Improves Behavioral Impairments and Stimulates Neuroplasticity in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats (SHR): an Animal Model of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent and disabling disorder, mainly characterized by hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity, but also by olfactory and memory impairments that frequently persist throughout lifetime. The pathophysiology of ADHD is complex, involving several brain regions and neural pathways including alterations in adenosine neuromodulation. The administration of caffeine (a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist) and physical exercise have been independently pointed as effective approaches for the management of ADHD symptoms. Here, we evaluated the effects of caffeine consumption (0.3 mg/mL in drinking water) plus physical exercise in running wheels during 6 weeks-starting during either adolescence (30 days old) or adulthood (4-5 months old)-on behavioral performance (including olfactory discrimination, open field, object recognition, and water maze tests) on the brain levels of monoamines (by high-performance liquid chromatography), on proteins related to synaptic plasticity and on brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling (by Western blot analysis) in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs), a validated animal model of ADHD. SHRs displayed persistent impairments of olfactory and short-term recognition memory from adolescence to adulthood, which were accompanied by lower levels of synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. The association of caffeine plus physical exercise during adolescence or adulthood restored the olfactory discrimination ability and, in an independent manner, improved short-term recognition memory of SHRs. These benefits were not associated to alterations in locomotor activity or in the hypertensive phenotype. The association of caffeine consumption plus physical exercise during adolescence increased the levels of SNAP-25, syntaxin, and serotonin in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and striatal dopamine levels in SHRs. These results provide new evidence of the potential of caffeine and physical exercise, starting at adolescence or adult life, to improve behavioral impairments and stimulate neuroplasticity in ADHD.

Effects of chronic caffeine exposure during adolescence and subsequent acute caffeine challenge during adulthood on rat brain serotonergic systems

Caffeine is the most commonly used drug in the world. However, animal studies suggest that chronic consumption of caffeine during adolescence can result in enhanced anxiety-like behavioral responses during adulthood. One mechanism through which chronic caffeine administration may influence subsequent anxiety-like responses is through actions on brainstem serotonergic systems. In order to explore potential effects of chronic caffeine consumption on brainstem serotonergic systems, we evaluated the effects of a 28-day exposure to chronic caffeine (0.3 g/L; postnatal day 28-56) or vehicle administration in the drinking water, followed by 24 h caffeine withdrawal, and subsequent challenge with caffeine (30 mg/kg; s.c.) or vehicle in adolescent male rats. In Experiment 1, acute caffeine challenge induced a widespread activation of serotonergic neurons throughout the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR); this effect was attenuated in rats that had been exposed to chronic caffeine consumption. In Experiment 2, acute caffeine administration profoundly decreased tph2 and slc22a3 mRNA expression throughout the DR, with no effects on htr1a or slc6a4 mRNA expression. Chronic caffeine exposure for four weeks during adolescence was sufficient to decrease tph2 mRNA expression in the DR measured 28 h after caffeine withdrawal. Chronic caffeine administration during adolescence did not impact the ability of acute caffeine to decrease tph2 or slc22a3 mRNA expression. Together, these data suggest that both chronic caffeine administration during adolescence and acute caffeine challenge during adulthood are important determinants of serotonergic function and serotonergic gene expression, effects that may contribute to chronic effects of caffeine on anxiety-like responses.

Lifelong exposure to caffeine increases anxiety-like behavior in adult mice exposed to tobacco smoke during adolescence

Caffeine and tobacco smoke are among the most frequently self-administered licit psychoactive drugs in the world. Both drugs affect anxiety levels, however, little is known on the impact of the dual exposure in the adolescent brain, the period during which smoking begins. Considering that anxiety is a relevant factor for smoking maintenance and relapse, we investigated the effects of lifelong exposure to caffeine on anxiety levels of Swiss mice exposed to tobacco smoke during adolescence. Caffeine was administrated during all prenatal and postnatal life (CAF, 0.1 g/l to drink). From postnatal day 30-45, animals were exposed to tobacco smoke (SMK, whole body exposure, 8 h/day) generated from research cigarettes type 3R4F (nicotine = 0.73 mg/per cigarette). Four groups were analyzed: (1) CAF + SMK exposure; (2) SMK exposure; (3) CAF exposure; (4) Control. Anxiety levels were assessed in the elevated plus maze at the end of smoke exposure (PN45), at short- (PN55) and long-term (PN75) withdrawal. Caffeine exposure reduced decision making time (time in center of maze) during adolescence (PN45 and PN55). In addition, caffeine increased anxiety-like behavior during long-term tobacco smoke withdrawal. The present study provides experimental evidence that caffeine and tobacco smoke during adolescence interact resulting in emotional dysregulation during tobacco smoke withdrawal. Particularly, increased anxiety-like behavior during long-term withdrawal in CAF + SMK animals demonstrates late-emergent effects. In this sense, our data suggest that lifelong caffeine exposure may be an important factor in tobacco relapse.

Coffee, caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and the purinergic system

Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans and is lauded for its aroma and flavour. It is the third most popular beverage in the world. This beverage is known by its stimulant effect associated with the presence of methylxanthines. Caffeine, a purine-like molecule (1,3,7 trymetylxantine), is the most important bioactive compound in coffee, among others such as chlorogenic acid (CGA), diterpenes, and trigonelline. CGA is a phenolic acid with biological properties as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotector, hypolipidemic, and hypoglicemic. Purinergic system plays a key role inneuromodulation and homeostasis. Extracellular ATP, other nucleotides and adenosine are signalling molecules that act through their specific receptors, namely purinoceptors, P1 for nucleosides and P2 for nucleotides. They regulate many pathological processes, since adenosine, for instance, can limit the damage caused by ATP in the excitotoxicity from the neuronal cells. The primary purpose of this review is to discuss the effects of coffee, caffeine, and CGA on the purinergic system. This review focuses on the relationship/interplay between coffee, caffeine, CGA, and adenosine, and their effects on ectonucleotidases activities as well as on the modulation of P1 and P2 receptors from central nervous system and also in peripheral tissue.

Sucrose or sucrose and caffeine differentially impact memory and anxiety-like behaviours, and alter hippocampal parvalbumin and doublecortin

Caffeinated sugar-sweetened "energy" drinks are a subset of soft drinks that are popular among young people worldwide. High sucrose diets impair cognition and alter aspects of emotional behaviour in rats, however, little is known about sucrose combined with caffeine. Rats were allocated to 2 h/day 10% sucrose (Suc), 10% sucrose plus 0.04% caffeine (CafSuc) or control (water) conditions. The addition of caffeine to sucrose appeared to increase the rewarding aspect of sucrose, as the CafSuc group consumed more solution than the Suc group. After 14 days of intermittent Suc or CafSuc access, anxiety was assessed in the elevated plus maze (EPM) prior to their daily solution access, whereby CafSuc and Suc rats spent more time in the closed arms, indicative of increased anxiety. Following daily solution access, CafSuc, but not Suc, rats showed reduced anxiety-like behaviour in the open-field. Control and CafSuc rats displayed intact place and long-term object memory, while Suc showed impaired memory performance. Sucrose reduced parvalbumin immunoreactivity in the hippocampus, but no differences were observed between Control and CafSuc conditions. Parvalbumin reactivity in the basolateral amygdala did not differ between conditions. Reduced doublecortin immunoreactivity in the dentate gyrus relative to controls was seen in the CafSuc, but not Suc, treatment conditions. These findings indicate that the addition of caffeine to sucrose attenuated cognitive deficits. However, the addition of caffeine to sucrose evoked anxiety-like responses under certain testing conditions, suggesting that frequent consumption of caffeinated energy drinks may promote emotional alterations and brain changes compared to standard soft drinks.

Differential Behavioral and Biochemical Responses to Caffeine in Male and Female Rats from a Validated Model of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder

Epidemiological studies suggest sex differences in attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology. The potential benefits of caffeine have been reported in the management of ADHD, but its effects were not properly addressed with respect to sex differences. The present study examined the effects of caffeine (0.3 g/L) administered since childhood in the behavior and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its related proteins in both sexes of a rat model of ADHD (spontaneously hypertensive rats-SHR). Hyperlocomotion, recognition, and spatial memory disturbances were observed in adolescent SHR rats from both sexes. However, females showed lack of habituation and worsened spatial memory. Although caffeine was effective against recognition memory impairment in both sexes, spatial memory was recovered only in female SHR rats. Besides, female SHR rats showed exacerbated hyperlocomotion after caffeine treatment. SHR rats from both sexes presented increases in the BDNF, truncated and phospho-TrkB receptors and also phospho-CREB levels in the hippocampus. Caffeine normalized BDNF in males and truncated TrkB receptor at both sexes. These findings provide insight into the potential of caffeine against fully cognitive impairment displayed by females in the ADHD model. Besides, our data revealed that caffeine intake since childhood attenuated behavioral alterations in the ADHD model associated with changes in BDNF and TrkB receptors in the hippocampus.

Sex differences in the effects of pre- and postnatal caffeine exposure on behavior and synaptic proteins in pubescent rats

Few studies have addressed the effects of caffeine in the puberty and/or adolescence in a sex dependent manner. Considering that caffeine intake has increased in this population, we investigated the behavioral and synaptic proteins changes in pubescent male and female rats after maternal consumption of caffeine. Adult female Wistar rats started to receive water or caffeine (0.1 and 0.3g/L in drinking water; low and moderate dose, respectively) during the active cycle at weekdays, two weeks before mating. The treatment lasted up to weaning and the offspring received caffeine until the onset of puberty (30-34days old). Behavioral tasks were performed to evaluate locomotor activity (open field task), anxious-like behavior (elevated plus maze task) and recognition memory (object recognition task) and synaptic proteins levels (proBDNF, BDNF, GFAP and SNAP-25) were verified in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. While hyperlocomotion was observed in both sexes after caffeine treatment, anxiety-related behavior was attenuated by caffeine (0.3g/L) only in females. While moderate caffeine worsened recognition memory in females, an improvement in the long-term memory was observed in male rats for both doses. Coincident with memory improvement in males, caffeine increased pro- and BDNF in the hippocampus and cortex. Females presented increased proBDNF levels in both brain regions, with no effects of caffeine. While GFAP was not altered, moderate caffeine intake increased SNAP-25 in the cortex of female rats. Our findings revealed that caffeine promoted cognitive benefits in males associated with increased BDNF levels, while females showed less anxiety. Our findings revealed that caffeine promotes distinct behavioral outcomes and alterations in synaptic proteins during brain development in a sex dependent manner.

Botanicals as Modulators of Neuroplasticity: Focus on BDNF

The involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in different central nervous system (CNS) diseases suggests that this neurotrophin may represent an interesting and reliable therapeutic target. Accordingly, the search for new compounds, also from natural sources, able to modulate BDNF has been increasingly explored. The present review considers the literature on the effects of botanicals on BDNF. Botanicals considered were Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell, Coffea arabica L., Crocus sativus L., Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (green tea), Ginkgo biloba L., Hypericum perforatum L., Olea europaea L. (olive oil), Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Rhodiola rosea L., Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, Vitis vinifera L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, and Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton. The effect of the active principles responsible for the efficacy of the extracts is reviewed and discussed as well. The high number of articles published (more than one hundred manuscripts for 14 botanicals) supports the growing interest in the use of natural products as BDNF modulators. The studies reported strengthen the hypothesis that botanicals may be considered useful modulators of BDNF in CNS diseases, without high side effects. Further clinical studies are mandatory to confirm botanicals as preventive agents or as useful adjuvant to the pharmacological treatment.

Aged mice receiving caffeine since adulthood show distinct patterns of anxiety-related behavior

Caffeine is the psychostimulant most consumed worldwide. Anxiogenic effects of caffeine have been described in adult animals with controversial findings about its anxiogenic potential. Besides, the effects of caffeine on anxiety with aging are still poorly known. In this study, adult mice (6months old) started to receive caffeine (0.3 and 1.0mg/mL, drinking water) during 12-14months only in the light cycle and at weekdays. The open field (OF) and elevated plus maze (EPM) testing were used to determine the effects of caffeine on anxiety-related behavior in adult and aged mice (18-20months old). Because aging alters synaptic proteins, we also evaluated SNAP-25 (as a nerve terminals marker), GFAP (as an astrocyte marker) and adenosine A₁ and A_2A receptors levels in the cortex. According to the OF analysis, caffeine did not change both hypolocomotion and anxiety with aging. However, aged mice showed less anxiety behavior in the EPM, but after receiving caffeine (0.3mg/mL) during adulthood they were anxious as adult mice. While SNAP-25 and adenosine A_2A receptors increased with aging, both GFAP and adenosine A₁ receptors were not affected. Caffeine at moderate dose prevented the age-related increase of the SNAP-25, with no effect on adenosine A_2A receptors. The absence of effect for the highest dose suggests that tolerance to caffeine may have developed over time. Aged mice showed high responsiveness to the OF, being difficult to achieve any effect of caffeine. On the other hand this substance sustained the adult anxious behavior over time in a less stressful paradigm, and this effect was coincident with changes in the SNAP-25, suggesting the involvement of this synaptic protein in the ability of caffeine to preserve changes related to emotionality with aging.